This is an exclusive presentation on data collection for researchers in National Institutes Labor of Administration & Training (NILAT), Ministry of production, government of Pakistan

1. DATA
COLLECTION
Dr. Akhlas Ahmed
17th
February, 2015
NILAT

2. DATA
COLLECTION
The Heart of Research

3. Q. How important it is?

4. How Important it is?:
Data collection is an extremely
important part of any research because
the conclusions of a study are based
on what the data reveal. There are
several ways of collecting data. The
choice of procedures usually depends
on the objectives and design of the
study and the availability of time,
money and personnel.

5. Objectives of this Lesson::
Define what data means Distinguish
quantitative from qualitative data, primary
from secondary data Describe the different
techniques in collecting quantitative data
with the use of interview, administration of
questionnaires, testing, and use of service
statistics Explain the advantages and
disadvantages of using self-administered
questionnaires and interview

6. 5. Describe and illustrate when and how in-
depth interviews, focus group discussion
and direct observation used
6. Prepare a questionnaire/interview
schedule

7. What are data?:
What are data? The term data refers to any
kind of information researchers obtain on
the subjects, respondents or participants of
the study. In research, data are collected
and used to answer the research questions
or objectives of the study.

8. Examples of data:
Examples of data Demographic information
such as age, sex, household size, civil
status or religion. Social and economic
information such as educational attainment,
health status, extent of participants in social
organizations, occupation, income, housing
condition and the like. Scores in exams,
grades, etc.

9. Types of Research Data:
Types of Research Data Research data are
generally classified either as quantitative or
qualitative. Based on their source, data fall
under two categories namely: A. Primary
Secondary

10. Quantitative and Qualitative Data:
Quantitative and Qualitative Data A study
may be intended to generate precise
quantitative findings or to produce
qualitative descriptive information or both.
Quantitative Data- are information which can
be counted or expressed in numerical
values. Ex: age, grades, income, test score,
number of children, level of satisfaction,
amount of sales, length of service, etc.

11. Qualitative Data:
Qualitative Data These are descriptive
information which has no numerical values.
Ex: attitude or perception towards
something, process used in accomplishing
an activity, a person’s experiences, one’s
idea about certain concepts, situation, or
phenomenon like drug abuse , family
planning, brgy. Justice system, etc.

12. Primary and Secondary data:
Primary and Secondary data According to
source, data may also be classified as
Primary or secondary. Two important
questions to be considered are: Who will
provide that data? Where will the data be
collected?

13. Primary Data:
Primary Data These are information
collected directly from the subjects being
studied, such are people, areas, or objects

14. Secondary Data:
Secondary Data These are information
collected from other available sources, like
recent censuses, or data collected by large
scale national or world wide surveys, such
as agriculture and industry surveys,
demographic and health surveys, data of
completed studies.

15. Techniques of Collecting Quantitative
Data:
Techniques of Collecting Quantitative Data
The choice of the best way to collect data
depends largely on the type of data to be
collected and the source of data. Before
starting to collect data, a researcher should
decide: A. What data to collect, B. Where or
from whom the data will be obtain, C. What
instrument/s or device/s to use in collecting
the data.

16. The two most common means of collecting
quantitative information are the self-
administered questionnaire and the
structured interview. Quantitative
information may also be collected from
secondary sources and service statistics
(Fisher, et.al.,1991)

17. Studies which obtain data by interview
people or by administering questionnaires
are called surveys. When the people
interviewed or asked to respond to
questionnaires are representative sample of
a large population, such studies are called
sample surveys.

18. Feature of a self-administered
questionnaire:
Feature of a self-administered questionnaire
Questionnaires are given to the respondents
who are asked to read and answer the
questions themselves. Questions and
instructions are addressed to the
respondents. Instructions on how to
accomplish the questionnaire are clearly
specified in the instrument.

19. Advantages of using self administered
questionnaire:
Advantages of using self administered
questionnaire A self administered
questionnaire is less expensive per
respondent than an interview. A
questionnaire require less time and less
skills for data-gathering and processing.
External influence is avoided. Respondents
have time to think before answering
because they are not under pressure to give
an answer immediately.

20. Disadvantages of a self- administered
questionnaire:
Disadvantages of a self- administered
questionnaire The per respondent cost of
self-administered questionnaires may be
low, but return rate is also generally low,
usually less than 50%. Many respondents
do not return accomplished questionnaire.
Respondents included in the sample may
not be representative of the population
being studied. No one will answer or clarify
questions that may arise. Questionnaires
cannot be used on illiterate respondents.

21. Structured Interview:
Structured Interview It involves a face to
face interaction between the data collector
(the interviewer), and the source of
information (the respondent). The
interviewer directly asks the respondent
questions from a prepared instrument, which
is called an Interview Schedule.

22. Features of a Structured Interview:
Features of a Structured Interview The
interviewer reads each question to the
respondent and record verbatim in the
instrument the answers provided by the
respondents. Respondents are asked the
exact questions as formulated and as
sequenced. Instructions for the interviewer
on how questions should be asked and how
answers are to be recorded are incorporated
in the instrument.

23. Advantages of Face to face Interview:
Advantages of Face to face Interview The
interviewer can observe the body language
of the respondent. The interviewer can
probe for clarification of ambiguous
responses. Interview is effective for semi-
literate or illiterate respondents. The
expected response rate in an interview is
high.

24. Disadvantages of Face to Face Interview:
Disadvantages of Face to Face Interview
The cost in terms of money, time, and
personnel per respondent is high, especially
because of travel cost. Skilled interviewer is
required. Training is needed for those who
lack experience and/ or those who are not
yet skilled in conducting interviews. Even
skilled interviewers require briefing on
features/aspects of data collection peculiar
to a particular project.

25. Others: In-depth interview To answer How
and Why questions 1. Example: In a Study
about domestic violence, with a victim as
key informant, the interviewer may ask:
“Some people believe that men have the
right to discipline their wives. Do you share
the same belief? (Probe) Why or why not?
2. In a study on students’ attitude towards
cheating in class, with teachers as key
informants, the interviewer may ask: “Why
do you think student cheat? (Probe) Can
you explain what you mean by “ habit” ? “Is
cheating rampant in your classes? How
rampant it is? (Probe) Why is it so? Focus

26. Others::
Others: Observation Participant Observation
Non-Participant Observation Content
Analysis

27. Evaluation:
Evaluation What does the term data mean?
What are the different types of data?
Describe each type. What are the different
techniques in collecting quantitative data?
What about qualitative data? What are the
advantages of an interview over a
questionnaire? What about the
disadvantages of each?

28. Group activity: Select one research topic
below and do items 1, 2 and 3:
Group activity: Select one research topic
below and do items 1, 2 and 3 Marketing
Practices of Fish Vendors in Wet Markets
The Psychological and Health Needs of the
Elderly

29. 1. Formulate a general objective and two
specific objectives for the research topic you
have chosen General Objective:
___________________________________
_________ Specific Objectives:
___________________________________
______
___________________________________
______

30. 2. Identify the specific data you need to
collect to answer the objectives of the study,
indicate the sources of your data and the
data collection technique that will adopt.
Data Requirements Data Source/s Data
Collection Technique

31. 3 . If you need a qualitative data as a
supplement to your quantitative data, what
specific qualitative data do you need? What
Technique/s do you propose to use to
collect the qualitative data? Data Data
Collection Technique

32. Data Collection Workshop:
Data Collection Workshop Restate the
objectives of your research problem and list
the specific data that you need to collect and
identify the possible sources of these data.
Objectives Data Requirements Sources

33. Identify the data collection technique/s that
you will use in your study and explain your
choice. Describe the procedures that you
will follow in collecting your data.

34. THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

35. INSTRUMENTATION:
INSTRUMENTATION There are several
kinds of instruments that can be used in
data collection. Certain conditions dictate
the type of instrument to use, such as the
characteristics of the research
subjects/respondents, availability of
subjects/ respondents, and the available
resources for the study.

36. Since conclusions of a study are based on
what the data reveal, it is important that the
instruments used to collect data are valid
and reliable

37. Objectives of this Lesson::
Objectives of this Lesson: Explain what
validity and reliability of instruments mean
and how these qualities are ensured in the
preparation; of questionnaires/interview
schedules Discuss how interview schedule
and questionnaires are prepared;

38. Validity and Reliability of a Research
Instrument:
Validity and Reliability of a Research
Instrument The quality of instrument used in
research is very important, since the
conclusions drawn from the findings of a
study are based on the data collected. For
inferences drawn from the study to be valid,
the research instruments must be valid and
reliable (Wallen, 1996).

39. Validity of an Instrument:
Validity of an Instrument Validity refers to
the appropriateness and usefulness of
inferences a researchers makes on the data
they collect. A research instrument is valid
when it measures what it intends to
measure.

40. Researchers should make sure that any
information collected through the use of an
instrument serves the purpose for which it is
collected.

41. Three kinds of Validity of an Instrument:
Three kinds of Validity of an Instrument
Content Validity Criterion Related Validity
Construct Related Validity

42. Content Validity:
Content Validity An instrument has a
content-Validity if the content and format of
an instrument appropriately covers the
topics and variables intended to be studied
and the items adequately represent the
subject to be assessed

43. The content and format of the instrument
must be consistent with the operational
definition of the variables. The key element
in content validity is the adequacy of
sampling of items that are included in the
instrument.

44. Content validation is intended to determine if
the items contained in an instrument
comprise an adequate sample of the
content which it is suppose to represent.

45. How to determine Content-Validity:
How to determine Content-Validity A
common way of determining the content
validity of an instrument is by having one or
more individual look at the content and
format of the instrument and judge whether
or not they are appropriate.

46. The person/s who will be asked to look at
the instrument should be able to render an
intelligent judgment or an expert’s opinion
on the adequacy and appropriateness of the
content and format of the instrument. When
two or more individuals evaluate the
instrument, the process is called “ Jury
Validation ”

47. Criterion-Related Validity:
Criterion-Related Validity An instrument has
criterion related Validity if a score obtained
by an individual using a particular instrument
is significantly associated with a score
he/she obtains on another instrument or
another measure, known as the criterion.

48. How to determine Criterion Related
Validity:
How to determine Criterion Related Validity
To determine the criterion-related validity of
an instrument, a researcher can compare
the answers or responses of the subjects or
respondents in the instrument being
evaluated with their responses in the
another instrument, called the Criterion .

49. For example: If one wants to measure
academic performance of student, he/she
can get the student’s general average in all
academic subjects and compare this to his
college entrance exam score, which can be
the Criterion Variable.

50. Construct –Related Validity:
Construct –Related Validity It refers to
specific psychological constructs or
characteristics being measured by the
instrument and how well these constructs
explain the differences in the behavior of
individuals.

51. How to determine the Construct-related
Validity:
How to determine the Construct-related
Validity Clearly define the variable
Formulate a hypothesis based on the
theory, and Testing the hypothesis both
logically and empirically.

52. Example::
Example: A researcher theorize that
economic deprivation can challenge an
individual to aspire for a better life. Based on
this theory, the researcher might
hypothesize that students from low-income
families will more likely have higher
aspirations than those who belong to high
income families.

53. The researcher then prepares questionnaire
that will generate information on family
income and level of aspiration of the
students.

54. After administering the questionnaire, the
researcher analyze the data. If the result
shows that indeed, students from low-
income families have higher aspirations than
those belong to high-income families, then,
this can be one evidence of the construct
validity of the instrument.

55. Reliability of the Research Instrument:
Reliability of the Research Instrument
Reliability refers to the consistency of the
response or the scores obtained by an
individual in a test or research instrument
administered twice.

56. For example in a test I math, a student is
expected to get a high grade in the second
administration if his/her score in the first is
high. Reliability of this test can also be
determined if two forms of the test can be
prepared and the scores of the students in
the two forms can be compared.

57. Three Methods in determining the
Reliability of an Instrument:
Three Methods in determining the Reliability
of an Instrument Test-Retest Method
Equivalent-Forms Method Internal-
Consistency Method 3.1.Split-half
Procedure (using Spearman-Brown
Prophecy formula)

58. Spearman-Brown Prophecy formula:
Spearman-Brown Prophecy formula
Reliability of Scores = 2 X reliability for ½
tests On Total Tests 1 + reliability for ½ tests
If the correlation between the two sets of
scores is statistically significant, then the
instrument is reliable.

59. Methods of checking Validity and
Reliability:
Methods of checking Validity and Reliability
Validity(Truthfulness) Methods Procedures
Content-Related Method Criterion-Related
method Construct-Related Method Expert’s
judgment Relate to another measure of the
same variable Assess evidence from
hypothesis or prediction made from theory

60. Reliability (Consistency) Methods
Procedures Test-retest Equivalent forms
Equivalent forms retest Internal consistency
Give identical instrument twice Give two
forms of instrument Give two forms of
instrument with time interval between Divide
instrument into two halves, score each

61. Good Luck!