Orienteering is an outdoor sport that involves navigating through unfamiliar terrain using a map and compass. It originated in Scandinavia in the late 1800s and came to the US in the 1940s. The goal is to navigate between control points of varying distances, from less than a mile to over 4 miles. Key skills include reading topographic maps, using a compass, pacing distances, navigating with techniques like using beelines or contour lines, and identifying one's location using a grid coordinate system.
2. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Describe the sport of orienteering.
• Describe the features and be able to read &
understand topographical maps.
• Explain how to use a magnetic compass in
orienteering.
• Describe how distances are measured during
orienteering.
• Describe the land navigation techniques used
in orienteering.
• Be able to accurately plot bearing and ranges
on a topographical map.
5. Orienteering
The object of orienteering is to run, ski,
walk, or mountain bike to a series of
points shown on a map. These points
are called control points.
7. The Well-Dressed Orienteer
Lightweight
Compass Long Sleeve Shirt
Looped At Wrist
Johnston
Wristwatch
Tear Resistant
Old Pants
Shin Guards
Old Shoes
8. Introduction to Maps
Knowing how to read
and understand maps
are valuable skills.
Your effective use of
maps requires a basic
understanding of
them, as well as of
their scales, symbols,
and colors.
9. Definition of a Map
A map is a line drawing of a portion of
the Earth’s surface, drawn to scale as
seen from above.
10. Of the many different types, the most
common are:
• City or state road
• Geographic
• Topographic.
11. Geographical Map
Geographic maps show an overall view
of the mapped area in relation to climate,
population, relief, vegetation, and
hydrography (water features).
12. Map Reading
Orienteering usually requires the use of
a topographic map depicting the area in
which the course is laid out.
A topographic map is a graphic
representation of manmade and natural
features of a part of the Earth's surface.
13. Topographical Maps
Topographic
maps show
terrain and
landforms in a
manner that can
be measured.
Elevation on
these maps is
indicated by
vertical contour
lines.
14. Orienting a Map
Finding your way requires
the ability to read and
interpret a map and move
to the desired location.
One method of comparing
your map to the ground is
to orient it so that the map
symbols fit the location of
the features as they
appear on the ground.
15. Orient
To align or position oneself
(or a map) in relationship to
one’s surroundings
16. Global Positioning System (GPS)
GPS is a high-
tech worldwide
radio/navigation
system with a
network of 24
satellites and
ground stations.
GPS provides a method of mapmaking
and location identification.
17. Introduction to Topographic Maps
Compared to road maps, topographic maps
show more detail of an area’s natural features.
18. Introduction to Topographic Maps
Whether you are practicing basic land
navigation techniques, participating in
orienteering, or performing land navigation at
summer camp, knowing how to use topographic
maps can help you in the following ways:
• Finding your way
• Navigating a group
• Determining distances
• Pinpointing locations
• Determining type of terrain
• Planning trips ore operations
19. Features
Boundaries Dams
Bridges Railroads
Buildings Rivers
Caves/Mines Roads/Trails
Coastal Features Pipelines
Contour Lines Bodies of Water
• Elevations Fences
And this is only a partial list!
20. The most useful
scale for an
orienteering map is:
1:15,000 or 1:10,000
1 inch on the map
Represents 15,000
or 10,000 inches on
the ground)
21. Conversion
Scale of the Map is 1:12,000
If you measured a distance of 3 inches
on the map, how many feet would that
equate to on the ground?
1:12,000 as 3:36,000 (3 x 12,000)
36,000 inches / 12 (inches per foot) =
3000 Feet
22. Conversion
Scale of the Map is 1:15,000
If you measured a distance of 2 cm
on the map, how many meters would
that equate to on the ground?
1:15,000 as 2:30,000 (2 x 15,000)
30,000 cm/ 100 (cm per meter) =
300 meters
23. Direction
On most maps, north is at the top, south
to the bottom, east to the right, and west
to the left.
There is a slight difference between the
location of the north pole and that of
magnetic north. This is the variation
angle or declination angle.
33. Topographical Marginal Information
Scale - Most topographic maps have more
than one scale (extension and primary), each
using a different unit of measurement. The
most common units of measurement are
miles (statute and nautical), kilometers, and
yards.
35. Nautical Mile
A unit of measurement that is
approximately 6,080 feet –
which is one minute of latitude;
slightly longer than a statute
mile
36. Mapmakers divide each scale into two parts:
an extension scale and a primary scale.
Use the primary scale, located to the right of
the zero, to measure full units of
measurement.
Use the extension scale, located to the left of
the zero, to measure tenths of a unit.
37. Contour Interval Note
The contour interval note also appears
in the center of the lower margin. It
represents the vertical distance
between adjacent contour lines on the
map.
38. Colors on Topographic Map
water (lakes, ponds, rivers,
streams, marshes)
rock features (boulders, cliffs),
roads, trails, fences, buildings
forest with little or no undergrowth
that allows for easy passage
vegetation that requires unusual
effort to traverse
open or unforested land
land features, contours, earth
banks, sandy ground
40. Map Symbols
Symbols on topographic
maps are usually more
detailed than on other
maps. Symbols are used
to represent the position
and shape of features as
viewed from above. Maps
include roads, trails,
railroad tracks, power
lines, mines, bench
marks, and spot
elevations.
41. Bench Mark
A surveyor’s mark made on
rocks or other permanent
objects to indicate known
elevations
42. Contour Lines
Brown contour
lines represent
valleys, hills, and
plains.
Spacing between
lines represents a
constant vertical
distance; the closer
the intervals, the
greater the slope.
43. When lines are
close together, they
show a steep slope.
Similarly, when they
are far apart, they
show a gentle slope.
Contour interval is
the distance (feet or
meters) between
lines.
44. If the map contour interval is 10 feet,
HOW HIGH IS THIS HILL?.
46. Contour lines indicate
elevation, in feet or
meters, above sea
level.
Contour lines tell
you the ups and
downs of the land.
47. Typical
Magnetic
Compass
Silva Type 3
• A must for orienteering
• Contains protractor in base for reading
magnetic azimuth angles on a map
• Most widely used
49. Grid Reference System
To keep from getting lost,
you must know how to find
your location.
Learning to use the grid
referencing system in
conjunction with maps and
grid coordinates will help
you to pinpoint your
location quickly and
accurately.
50. Grid Coordinate
A set of letters and numbers
specifying the location of a
point to the desired position
within a 100,000 meter square
51. Lines of Latitude and Longitude
A set of east-west
rings around the
globe, and a set of
north-south rings
crossing the equator
and converging at
the poles, form
reference lines from
which you can locate
any point on the
Earth’s surface.
52. Lines of latitude run
east-west, but they
are used to measure
north-south
distances.
Starting with 0
degrees at the
equator, map-
makers number
parallels to 90
degrees both north
and south.
53. Lines of longitude
run north-south, but
they are used to
measure east-west
distances.
Starting with 0
degrees at the prime
meridian,
mapmakers number
meridians to 180
degrees both east
and west.
54. UTM Grid System
The U.S. military superimposed its grid
system on the Universal Transverse
Mercator Grid System, or UTM grid system.
55. UTM Grid System
The UTM grid system divides the surface of
the Earth into 60 north-south grid zones
(each six degrees wide). Mapmakers number
these zones from west to east, 1 through 60,
starting at the 180 degree meridian.
56. The grid is further
divided into 20 north-
south segments. Each
grid segment has a
letter for identification
(excluding ―I‖ and ―O‖).
57. Nineteen of these grid
segments are 8 degrees
high, and the one row at
the extreme north is 12
degrees high.
This combination of zone
number and row letter
constitutes the grid zone
designation.
58. With the grid segments complete, polar
regions would not be represented.
Therefore, to complete your globe,
extend these grid lines to 90 degrees in
both directions. Mapmakers use the
remaining four letters, ―A,‖ ―B,‖ ―Y,‖ and
―Z,‖ to identify the polar regions.
59. Military Grid System
Superimposed on each grid zone segment
are 100,000 meter squares. Each square is
assigned two identification letters. The first
letter is the column designation, and the
second letter is the row designation.
60. Each square is then
divided by parallel
lines (or grid lines)
that are 1,000 meters
or 10,000 meters apart.
These parallel lines
come together at right
angles to form 1,000
meter or 10,000 meter
squares (called grid
squares).
61. Locating a Point Using the
Military Grid Reference System
ALWAYS read RIGHT
first, then UP.
The number of digits in
a grid coordinate
represents the degree of
precision to which you
can locate and measure
a point on a map—the
more digits, the more
precise the
measurement.
62. To locate a 4-digit grid
coordinate, 5904
within 1,000m:
A 6-digit coordinate
locates a point within
100 meters
An 8-digit coordinate
locates a point within
10 meters.
63. You write grid
coordinates as one
continuous
alphanumeric symbol
without spaces,
parentheses, dashes, or
decimal points.
To determine grid
coordinates without
using a protractor, the
reader simply refers to
the grid lines numbered
along the margin of any
map.
80. Point Your Magnetic Compass at the Target
Align Compass Bevel with the Magnetic North Arrow
Convert Magnetic Heading to a Grid Heading and Place in Compass
Draw Grid Azimuth on Map
81. During orienteering, first obtain the
magnetic azimuth or bearing.
• Place edge of protractor base along
desired line of travel.
• Turn compass housing until
orienteering arrow aligns with
north reference lines.
• Turn your body until the red end of
magnetic needle aligns with the
orienteering arrow.
82. Distance is Important
in Orienteering to:
• Determine distances between control
points.
• Determine distances actually traveled.
83. Distance on a Map
If a map has a scale of 1:25000, and a
distance of 2 cm were measured on the
map between two locations, then the
actual distance along the ground would
be:
2cm x 250m/cm = 500m on the ground
84. Distance on a Map
Another method is to lay off the
measured distance on the map along
the graphic linear distance scale on
the map. This can then give you the
desired distance along the ground in
feet, meters, miles, or kilometers.
85. Measure the Distance with a Ruler
Convert to meters / yards / miles etc. (based on map scale)
Use the Bar Graph in the Map Legend
86. How Many Meters Between These Two Points?
Use ruler and count centimeters
1:50,000 scale = 1cm : 50,000cm = 1cm : 500m
8.6cm x 500m = 4300 meters
87. In the field, your pace is used to
measure distance. Your pace is the
average length, in meters, of a double
step.
88. To determine your pace, count the
number of double strides you make on
a 600-meter course. This should be
done while both running and walking.
89. Land Navigation Techniques
Several methods of land navigation
techniques may be used. Depending on
the terrain, one of the following methods
may be used:
• The beeline
• The steering mark
• The contour route
90. Beeline
A straight line is followed to the desired
location, by observing terrain features,
without the use of a compass.
91. Steering Mark
Once the bearing (direction of travel) is
determined, travel to easily identifiable
way-points (steering marks), such as
trees, rocks, or houses along the way.
92. Contour Route
If you use a contour line as a trail, you
would be traveling parallel to mean sea
level.
This method is
less tiring and
more accurate
than the beeline
method because
up and down hill
travel is minimized.
93. Aiming Off
In this example, the
orienteer follows an
azimuth slightly to
the right of control
point 3, proceeds to
the stream (the
catch feature), turns
left, and follows the
stream to the
control point.
94. A Catching Feature
• A linear feature that lies beyond the
control (example: a road or fence)
• Passes by, through, or near a control
• "Saves" you if you should miss the
control and go past it
95. Attack Point
• A prominent feature near a control
(100 - 150 meters)
• Used to get you close to a control as
quickly as possible
• Numerous attack points on beginner
courses
• Few attack points on advanced
courses
96. Before You Start
First, stop and look around; then look
closely at your map.
Observe the lay of the land. Find some
fairly distinct feature, or better yet, a
group of features, within view and on
the map.
Can you see any collecting features,
catching features, or handrails that
will help you get to the first control?
97. Handrail
• Any linear feature you can follow to
where you want to go
• Examples: a stream, trail, road, fence,
brick or stone wall
98. Slope
Slope is the steepness of a hill, usually
expressed as a ratio, e.g., 1 to 15 or
1:15, meaning 1 meter of rise for every
15 meters of horizontal distance.
99. Profile
Profile refers to the shape of a hill.
Three general profiles are:
Concave - steeper as it get higher
Convex - steeper at the bottom
Uniform - constant slope from bottom
to top
101. Ground Cover Factors
The effect of ground cover can be
converted to equivalent amounts
of level ground travel by using a
conversion formula.
The formula involves multiplying
the distance by the appropriate
factor in the following list.
102. Types of Cover Factor
Open trail 1
Waist-high grass 1.5
Open forest 2-3
Thick brush 5
Creek-bottom tangles 7-10
This indicates it would take 7-10 times
longer to cover creek-bottom tangles
than it would to jog along an open trail.
103. Rough Orienteering
• Use map to get general idea of objective
(how far it is and where you want to go).
• Proceed at top speed to collecting
features and continue to the control.
104. Fine Orienteering
• Requires slower movement and
continually checking map
• Smaller features used as landmarks
• Slow and inefficient for use for entire
leg of course
105. Speeds of Orienteering
Green light – used for rough orienteering
on the easy parts of a course where a
running pace is possible
106. Speeds of Orienteering
Green light – used for rough orienteering
on the easy parts of a course where a
running pace is possible
Yellow light – a slow jog or
fast walk, being cautious
when approaching a hand-
rail or an attack point
107. Speeds of Orienteering
Green light – used for rough orienteering
on the easy parts of a course where a
running pace is possible
Yellow light – a slow jog or
fast walk, being cautious
when approaching a hand-
rail or an attack point
Red light – a slow walk in order
to use fine orienteering to locate
a control
108. Speeds of Orienteering
All course legs may not lend them-
selves to all three speeds.
Learning when to use which speed
during rough and fine orienteering
comes only through experience.
109. Course Layout Criteria
• A well-wooded area (lots of trees)
• Uninhabited if possible
• Appropriate degree of difficulty for
the orienteers who will be using it
• Good map coverage of suitable scale
110. Course Layout Criteria
Circles are control points.
A triangle indicates the
start.
A double circle indicates
the finish.
111. Control Marker
• Should be visible from
at least 10 meters away
but not more than 50
• Usually attached is a
distinctive punch used
as 'proof' you were at
that control marker
116. Orienteering Activities
Cross-country (point-to-point) – the
classic form of orienteering. Controls
on a map must be visited in order.
Score-O – Controls are visited in any
order.
Night-O – a variation on either of the
above conducted from dusk through
dark.
117. Orienteering Activities
Long-O – Courses are 1.5 to 2 times
as long as a standard course, and have
long legs and complex route choices.
118. Orienteering Activities
Long-O – Courses are 1.5 to 2 times
as long as a standard course, and have
long legs and complex route choices.
Relay-O – A variation of point-to-point.
Each team member completes a leg of
a course.
119. Orienteering Activities
Long-O – Courses are 1.5 to 2 times
as long as a standard course, and have
long legs and complex route choices.
Relay-O – A variation of point-to-point.
Each team member completes a leg of
a course.
Memory-O – The first leg of the course
is memorized. After reaching control 1,
the second leg is memorized before
going to control 2.
120. Orienteering Activities
Recently, a new orienteering activity has
been added to the list of "O" activities.
This is:
Trail-O – an orienteering course laid out
specifically for handicapped individuals.
Trails are either on firm ground or paved
paths. Once a control point is reached,
the individual must observe specific land-
scape features and make the most
accurate estimates of distance, time of
travel, height and other required items.
121. Novice Advanced
Control
Descriptions
Clue Sheet
122. The previously shown symbols are
only a few of the many used in the
sport of orienteering. A more
comprehensive listing and their
meanings are available through links
provided at the United States
Orienteering Federation (USOF) Web
site at:
http://www.us.orienteering.org
124. The Rules of Orienteering
Like all sports, certain rules must be
followed.
Fairness – a sporting attitude and a spirit
of comradeship and honesty
Nature of orienteering – no outside help;
yet provide appropriate assistance if one
is injured or honestly lost
Environmental protection – take care of
the land you are on, obeying common
sense rules and following posted signs
125. Qualification Requirements for the
NJROTC Orienteering Ribbon
1. You must be a cadet in good standing.
2. Point out and name five major terrain
features on a map and in the field.
3. Point out and name ten symbols often
found on a topographic map.
4. Use a compass effectively.
126. 5. Measure distances on a map using a
straight edge.
6. Explain "descriptive clues," "aiming
off," and "attack point."
7. Determine, by length of pace and
speed, both walking and running,
when a distance of 100 meters has
been covered over various types of
terrain.
127. 8. Successfully complete at least two
3,000- to 4,000-meter cross-country
courses.
After completion of each course, the
NSI will debrief (critique) you on your
results.
128. Subsequent Awards
A star may be awarded for
orienteering participation in
the first and subsequent
years.
A maximum of two awards per year
(including the initial ribbon award) are
authorized.
Different orienteering courses must be
used for subsequent awards.
129. Benefits of Orienteering
The benefits of Orienteering are many:
• Builds self confidence
• Enhances team building
• Improves map reading
• Teaches a lifetime sport
• Provides mental challenges
• Provides physical challenges
131. Q. 1. What is orienteering?
A.1. Navigating cross country over
unfamiliar terrain with a map
and compass in order to locate
certain checkpoints called
control points that have been
marked by the course umpires
132. Q.2. What are the distinguishing
features of a topographical
map?
133. Q.2. What are the distinguishing
features of a topographical
map?
A.2. A topographical map shows
detail of elevations, water areas,
depressions, vegetation and
land features. It also depicts
the main roads and trails
through the area.
134. Q.3. How are the Earth's relief
features represented on a
topographical map?
135. Q.3. How are the Earth's relief
features represented on a
topographical map?
A.3. Through the use of contour
lines
143. Q.7. An orienteering compass is
designed with what type of
base?
A.7. Protractor
144. Q.8. How are the compass and map
used together to navigate?
145. Q.8. How are the compass and map
used together to navigate?
A.8. Line up magnetic north on the
compass with the map's
magnetic north. Twist the
compass protractor base to line
up the current position with the
destination printed on the map.
Read the magnetic bearing.
Select landmarks to follow
along this bearing.
146. Q.9. How does one determine
distance on a topographical
map?
147. Q.9. How does one determine
distance on a topographical
map?
A.9. Through the use of the map
scale, the linear distance scale
printed on the map, or the
distance scales along the sides
of the compass protractor base
148. Q.10. How are distances measured
in the field during
orienteering?
149. Q.10. How are distances measured
in the field during
orienteering?
A.10. Distances in the field are
measured by counting paces,
with each pace being the
average distance of a double-
step at various speeds.
150. Q.11. Why should one use the
steering mark selection
technique?
151. Q.11. Why should one use the
steering mark selection
technique?
A.11. Because through the use of
landmarks, the orienteer is
relieved of constantly
checking the compass.
152. Q.12. What are the advantages of
using a contour route?
153. Q.12. What are the advantages of
using a contour route?
A.12. A contour route is less tiring
and more accurate than
following a straight azimuth
over uneven terrain, because it
minimizes up and down
climbing.
155. Q.13. What is aiming off?
A.13. Aiming off involves following
an azimuth to the right or left
of a control point, then
following a catch feature to the
control.
157. Q.14. How does one use an attack
point?
A.14. An attack point is a prominent
feature near a control marker
that can be used as an
intermediate destination. Then
an accurate azimuth is
followed to the control marker.
158. Q.15. What are two characteristics
that should always be taken
into account when evaluating a
hill on a map?
159. Q.15. What are two characteristics
that should always be taken
into account when evaluating a
hill on a map?
A.15. Two important characteristics
of all hills are its slope or
steepness and its profile or
shape.
160. Q.16. What is the rule of thumb for
the amount of energy required
to climb a hill?
161. Q.16. What is the rule of thumb for
the amount of energy required
to climb a hill?
A.16. The rule of thumb for
estimating energy required to
climb a hill is every 25 feet of
climb equals 100 meters on
flat ground.
162. Q.17. Why is navigating across flat
forested country more difficult
than in more hilly territory?
163. Q.17. Why is navigating across flat
forested country more difficult
than in more hilly territory?
A.17. Navigating in flat country is
difficult because there are
usually no prominent features
to use as steering marks or
attack points. Also there are
often marshes, swamps, and
briar patches in the low places.
164. Q.18. About how many times more
difficult is travel through thick
brush than over open trail?
165. Q.18. About how many times more
difficult is travel through thick
brush than over open trail?
A.18. About 5 times more energy is
required.
166. Q.19. What is the difference between
rough and fine orienteering?
167. Q.19. What is the difference between
rough and fine orienteering?
A.19. Rough orienteering means to
proceed quickly from one point
to another using steering
marks and attack points,
without much use of the
compass. Fine orienteering
requires slower movement
while continually checking
position using the map and
compass.
169. Q.20. What elements should the
orienteer consider when
choosing routes?
A.20. Route choices should
consider distance, slope,
vegetation, collecting/catching
features, available handrails,
attack points, and the physical
and mental status of the
orienteer.
170. Q.21. What is the standard
symbology used to lay out an
orienteering course on a
master map of the area?
171. Q.21. What is the standard
symbology used to lay out an
orienteering course on a
master map of the area?
A.21. A triangle is used to indicate
the start. Circles are drawn
around the various control
points. A double circle is used
for the finish.
172. Q.22. What is the color scheme used
on control markers?
173. Q.22. What is the color scheme used
on control markers?
A.22. The basic color scheme
consists of square shapes
with white upper triangles and
red or orange lower triangles.
175. Q.23. What is a safety lane?
A.23. A safety lane is a location like
a perimeter road where an
orienteer may go in the event
of injury, excessive fatigue, or
becoming lost.
176. Q.24. What is the form of
orienteering activity most used
in the NJROTC?
177. Q.24. What is the form of
orienteering activity most used
in the NJROTC?
A.24. The cross-country
orienteering course is most
often used for NJROTC field
activities.
178. Q.25. In addition to a map, what
other materials are supplied to
participants in an orienteering
event?
179. Q.25. In addition to a map, what
other materials are supplied to
participants in an orienteering
event?
A.25. Orienteers are given written or
coded descriptions called clue
sheets to help locate and
identify control markers.
180. Q.25. In addition to a map, what
other materials are supplied to
participants in an orienteering
event?
A.25. They are also given event
cards upon which to record
their start and finish times and
punch or write in the codes
found on the various control
markers.
181. Q.26. How many orienteering
courses must a cadet have
completed to qualify for the
NJROTC orienteering ribbon?
182. Q.26. How many orienteering
courses must a cadet have
completed to qualify for the
NJROTC orienteering ribbon?
A.26. Two
