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1. AN OVERVIEW OF GOTH AS A SUBCULTURE OF CONSUMPTION
Leah Bush
AMST498B: Fashion and Consumer Culture in America
December 19, 2013

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Goth subculture is a relatively underexplored topic in academia despite its continuing
longevity and distinct sartorial style characterized by themes of the macabre, images associated
with femininity, and an overwhelming emphasis on the color black. Rising out of the ashes of the
punk rebellion of late 1970’s Britain, Goth quickly spread and remains concentrated in Britain,
the United States, and Germany. Interdisciplinary scholarship on Goth began nearly twenty years
after the subculture’s inception through ethnographic analyses of the British Goth subculture
which focused on the examination of Goth as a community defined by shared visual style and
subcultural tastes.
Goth’s devotion to style and ownership of subculturally approved consumer products
clearly define it as a subculture of consumption, and correspondingly, a major theme in Goth
subcultural scholarship is subcultural consumptive practices. Relationships between style,
gender, and identity form the other major theme in subcultural scholarship. As the majority of
Goth scholars are academics who are also subcultural members, little tension is apparent other
than discussion over the role of the vampire in relation to Goth style. Emerging scholarship
focuses on the relationship between the Goth subculture and aging, emphasizing that Goth
remains a community of aging participants who retain a collective style and identity. The lack of
scholarship on the American Goth subculture offers a variety of unexplored topics for
researchers of consumer culture, advertising, music, and fashion.
Goth Style in Relation to Subcultural Theory
Inspired by early 1980’s musical performers such as Siouxsie Sioux and Bauhaus, Goth
style developed at a London nightclub called the Batcave and was characterized from the
beginning by “black back-combed hair and distinctively styled heavy dark make-up,

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accentuating the eyes, cheekbones, and lips.”1
Another striking feature of Goth is male adoption
of traditionally feminine styles, such as elaborately modelled, long, black dyed hair, delicate
fabrics, skinny-fit clothes, skirts, and lots of black jewelry with crosses, magical symbols, skulls,
and bats.2
Goths also find stylistic inspiration in Victorian-era dress, which often includes
corsets, lace-up dresses, and pirate shirts.3
Since the late 1990’s, Goth has been influenced by
styles of the dance club and fetish scenes, creating sub-styles such as “cyber-Goth” and “fetish-
Goth.”1
Fig 1. Goth style icons Bauhaus in April 1980.4
Goth is often described by scholars as an educated, middle-class subculture marked by
exceptional peacefulness and a high degree of tolerance of different lifestyles5
, and is considered
to have little in common with early subcultural theories of the Chicago School which
conceptualized youth deviance in a situational context.6
These theories provided the framework
for the theories of the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) and the
1
Fashioning Gothic Bodies, by Catherine Spooner , senior lecturer at Lancaster University, explores the
historical role of clothing in the cultural construction of Gothic bodies through readings of literary texts in the
context of fashion and is recommended for researchers interested in Gothic literature and the history of fashion.

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book Resistance through Rituals (1976), which interpreted post-war British youth cultures as
symbolic of resistance to the dominant hegemony of British society. In his seminal work
Subculture: The Meaning of Style, Dick Hebdige of the CCCS presents the punk movement as a
case study of “stylistic subcultures” which signify their difference through stylistic innovation.7
The British class-based theories of Hebdige and the CCCS have provided fertile ground for
criticism by subcultural scholars, including sociologist Paul Hodkinson, who argues for its
inapplicability to Goth on the grounds of the subculture’s nonviolent nature.8
More recent
frameworks such as David Muggleton’s “post-modern” subcultures9
and Andy Bennett’s “neo-
tribes” 10
present subcultures as more fluid groupings of young people with related interests as
opposed to a shared subcultural identity.
As a distinct group devoted to a shared style and set of consumption activities, Goth
neatly fits into John W. Schouten and James McAlexander’s definition of subcultures of
consumption.11
Sarah Thornton directly relates ownership of products to subcultural stratification
in her theory of “subcultural capital,” which is commonly used by scholars of Goth to describe
subcultural power relations. In a study of club cultures in the mid 1990’s, Thornton expands
upon Pierre Bourdieu's concept of “cultural capital” to determine that subcultural capital, which
includes knowledge and purchase of consumer goods, confers status upon its owner in the eyes
of the relevant beholder.12
Foundational Literature on the Goth Subculture
The beginning of Goth subcultural scholarship coincided with Goth’s resurgence in
popularity in Britain in the late 1990’s. Goth: Identity, Style, and Subculture, by Paul Hodkinson,
senior lecturer in Sociology at the University of Surrey, is the first ethnographic study of Goth

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subculture and is highly suggested as the starting point for academic research on Goth. His
research as a critical insider in the British Goth scene has become primary literature on Goth.
Hodkinson’s sociological analysis of Goth subculture centers around his reworking of
subcultural theories to emphasize Goth as an independent grouping that does not require
opposition to a capitalistic dominant culture. In contrast to “post-modern” and “neo-tribal”
theories emphasizing fragmentation, Hodkinson argues that the features of Goth imply a level of
cultural substance which distinguish Goth as a subculture from more temporal groupings of
youth.13
These indicators of substance are distinctiveness in ideals and tastes, subcultural
identity, subcultural commitment, and a relatively high level of autonomy of media and
commerce.14
Hodkinson’s analysis of Goth style, identity, and subcultural consumption practices
are formed around this basis of Goth as a community. Although his discussion of the Goth
subculture is comprehensive, a limitation of his sociological analysis is that he examines Goth
only on the macro level and does not attempt to elucidate the meaning of Goth for individual
participants.
Goths: AGuide to an American Subculture is one volume in Micah Issitt’s non-scholarly
series on American subcultures. Although it may seem to be a promising overview of Goth,
Issitt’s scholarship is dubious. Factual errors abound regarding Goth music, and very little
analysis of the subculture is present. A researcher who possesses more than cursory knowledge
of Goth should pass over Goths and refer directly to the primary documents listed in the
annotated bibliography.2
Goth: Undead Subculture, a collection of twenty-three essays edited by Lauren M.E.
Goodlad, professor of English at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and Michael
2
A scholarly alternative focusing on Gothic sensibilities in popular culture with a focus on literature is
Contemporary Gothic by Catherine Spooner.

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Bibby, professor of English at Shippensburg University, is far more effective than Issitt’s Goths
in examining multiple facets of the subculture in an accessible manner. Goodlad and Bibby’s
introduction, written for a primarily academic audience, is also an excellent resource for the
more advanced researcher on Goth. Goodlad and Bibby build upon Hodkinson when arguing that
the longevity of Goth stems from its complex relationship to the idea of subculture. The major
dichotomy of Goth is that as a spectacular subculture, Goth signifies difference through stylistic
innovation and the aestheticization of everyday life and is also consumer and commodity
oriented by nature.15
The authors also touch upon various themes in Goth scholarship: the history of Goth;
Goth style; literature, music, and cinema commonly associated with Goth; subcultural
membership and technology; erroneous mainstream perceptions of Goth as a violent subculture;
and resistance to normative masculinity, all of which are discussed in a more comprehensive and
accessible manner in the essays to follow. Their emphasis on Goth as a polymorphous visual
style unconsciously leads to a failure to describe the subculture in accessible terms to a new
reader, who should refer to Goth or an essay in Goth: Undead Subculture in a specific topic of
interest. Knowledge of and a strong interest in both the stylistic hallmarks of Goth as well as the
basic tenets of subcultural theories are prerequisites for appreciating the depth of their
introduction.
Goth Subcultural Consumptive Practices
Scholarly discussions of Goth consumptive practices differ by discipline. For sociologist
Hodkinson, consumption is central to Goth identity and subcultural substance. Goths claim
subcultural capital and status through ownership of consumer goods, which differentiate Goths
subtly from one another as well as mainstream culture.16
The research in Goth in terms of

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subcultural capital is lacking, as it initially describes subculturally approved products but does
not detail which products confer higher status among Goths. Hodkinson’s research on
consumption also places an emphasis on Goths as subcultural producers who are primarily
motivated by their interest in the subculture. Goth entrepreneurship is not limited to producing
and selling Goth oriented goods; it also includes playing in Goth bands, running record labels,
and creating and publishing media targeted to Goths.17
Hodkinson also postulates that the varied
nature of Goth style is due to the creative selection and appropriation of goods from mainstream
retailers as well as the purchase of “pre-selected” Goth goods from subcultural retailers.18
Surprisingly, Hodkinson is the only researcher to discuss consumption as experience. He
observed that the experience of shopping was one clear way to reiterate a subcultural identity, as
Goths often dressed up to go out shopping together, and any form of abuse which was received
served as a rite of passage for new Goths as well as a reinvigoration of subcultural commitment
for established Goths.19
Goths also consumed through experience by attendance at social events,
which facilitated public subcultural participation, and provided a space for collective
consumption, appreciation of shared tastes, and competitive sharing of subcultural styles.20
The
appearance, behavior, and attention of Goths at social events were so important that Goths could
be regarded as “consuming one another,” as the crowd created both consumers and producers of
the experience.21
The argument of simultaneous production and consumption at social events
could have been strengthened by more research regarding behaviors and interpersonal
communication. Hodkinson does not examine if groups of Goths were segregated by gender or
style, or if any patterns of interaction suggested a hierarchy based on appearance or other forms
of subcultural capital.

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Christina Goulding and Michael Saren, marketing research professors at the University of
Wolverhampton and the University of Leicester, provide a very different perspective on
subcultural consumption. In “Gothic Entrepreneurs: A Study of the Subcultural
Commodification Process,” a chapter in the anthology Consumer Tribes, Goulding and Saren
posit that Goth, as a subculture of consumption, follows a life cycle in which people, meaning,
and products alter over time as the subculture undergoes a commodification process. Their
research is unique in the catalog of Goth scholarship in that they are market researchers with no
experience with the subculture.
Through observation and interviews at the 2005 Whitby Gothic Festival, Goulding and
Saren argue that commodification occurs through a tripartite process of diffusion where
subcultural fashions, products, and lifestyle make their way into mainstream culture. Early Goths
in the rebellion stage set themselves apart from the mainstream by a shared set of values and
activities.22
In the fragmentation stage, ownership of consumer products became the signifying
factor of group membership, and the values of the core Goth community gave way to a
temporary solidarity based on appearance, leading to commodification as the mainstream market
realized the potential of Goth.23
Interviews with older Goths revealed that this commodification
process has caused some original members to leave in disgust.24
Goulding and Saren’s consumer research stands partially at odds with other
scholarship on Goth, perhaps due to their failure to refer to foundational works in Goth when
formulating their argument. The title “Gothic Entrepreneurs” is a bit misleading, as their research
does not touch upon the possibility of subcultural participants as entrepreneurs within the
subculture, which Hodkinson clearly describes in Goth. It can be inferred from “Gothic
Entrepreneurs” that the wide array of Goth-oriented products available at Whitby indicates the

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terminus of the commodification process. However, Goulding and Saren fail to take into account
the probability that the majority of the products at Whitby are made by Goths for members of
their own subculture and may have little to do with the mainstream. Goulding and Saren also do
not take into account Hodkinson’s observation that Goths regularly appropriate mainstream
goods to form their own subcultural identity.
Goulding and Saren’s entire premise that Goth culture has been commodified is also
contradicted by Goodlad and Bibby, who acknowledge that Goth has been diffused since the
early 1980’s, but has never been defused in a manner leading to mainstream appropriation.25
This
occurs because Goths make a deliberate choice to “police Goth boundaries through
autoethnographic discourse to ward off processes of defusion or recuperation.”26
Their statement
of subcultural agency stands in stark contrast to Goulding and Saren’s apparent belief that Goths
almost seem to be helpless at the whims of market forces which will eventually commodify their
subculture. Further interviews with subcultural members could have explored the possibility of
subcultural resistance to commodification, such as whether disillusioned Goths chose to make
their own clothes or purchase products from subcultural retailers rather than patronize
mainstream shops which have appropriated Goth culture.
Goodlad and Saren’s outsider status in the Goth subculture may also affect their
discussion of subcultural disillusionment; all other works on Goth emphasize the subculture’s
survival. This raises two intriguing possibilities - that Goodlad and Saren are incorrect and that
subcultural disillusionment is rare, or that as outsiders, Goulding and Saren were more likely to
ask questions of Goths which researchers who are also subcultural members would be wary of
asking for fear of alienating research subjects. Despite these shortcomings, “Gothic

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Entrepreneurs” is still a worthy resource for scholars seeking information on subcultural
commodification from a marketing standpoint.
Goth Style, Gender, and Identity
Although Goth style is cobbled together from related elements, there is a consensus
among scholars that a defining feature of Goth is the adoption of styles traditionally coded as
feminine. Dunja Brill, at Humboldt University, Berlin, examines cross-cultural Goth style
practices through the lens of gender in the scholarly book Goth Culture: Gender, Sexuality, and
Style. As the first in-depth analysis of Goth style and gender, Goth Culture is a highly
recommended resource on style, gender relations, and sexuality within a style-based subculture.
Combining an analysis of German Goth media with ethnography in the British and German Goth
scenes in the early 2000’s, Brill argues that Goth style creates an “ideology of genderlessness”
(also known as androgyny) which idealizes highly feminized style for both genders and
transposes the gender binary to the categories of male androgyny and female hypersexuality.27
Brill’s analysis of style and gender relations is innately tied to subcultural capital. In
contrast to Hodkinson, who finds no shared structural, psychological, or political meaning to
Goth style, Brill links the feminization of male Goth style to important sources of cultural
capital: transgression and courage. The androgynous appearance of males presents a paradox as
their feminized style functions as a display of masculinity, affirming traditional male values such
as courage, confidence, and sexual prowess.28
Conversely, female androgyny is strongly discouraged and can lead to a loss of
subcultural status. Brill suggests that two alternative routes to subcultural capital for women are
hyperfeminine attire and displays of bisexuality, both of which are associated with power and
control for some female Goths.29
Brill also notes that the growing trend in women’s Goth style

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towards fetishwear and revealing clothes parallels the trend in sexualized young women’s
fashion.30
This raises an unexplored possibility that mainstream trends can influence Goth
subcultural fashions.
Although male androgyny may be the Goth ideal, Brill’s analysis of gender
representations in German music and subcultural media in Goth Culture reveals the existence of
strongly gendered archetypes. Goth media constructs the archetypes of “masculine warrior
versus feminine fairy” and portrays women as sex objects with little to no representation of
sexualized male bodies.31
Unfortunately, the scope of Brill’s research does not include an
investigation if these highly gendered and sexualized subcultural media depictions of Goths
accurately represent the views of the Goth community.3
Brill’s discussion of gender
representations in media would have also been greatly enhanced through a comparison of
mainstream and subcultural media representations of Goth.
Market researchers Goulding and Saren present an alternative and perhaps contentious
analysis of Goth style and gender in “Performing Identity: An Analysis of Gender Expressions at
the Whitby Goth Festival” in the marketing journal Consumption, Markets, and Culture. Their
examination centers around the controversial image of the vampire. Returning to the data
collected at Whitby for “Gothic Entrepreneurs,” Goulding and Saren argue that Goth style is
deeply rooted in sexually ambiguous vampiric images which violate norms of femininity and
masculinity.32
Due to the association with vampirism, Goth culture at Whitby creates a symbolic
space where androgyny is prized. It should be noted that their use of the term “androgyny” is
actually a misnomer, as no female Goths observed at Whitby dressed as males or tried to
emphasize masculine attributes. This lack of female androgyny serves to strengthen Brill’s
3
Brill’s analysis of subcultural media may be influenced by the fact that she is a former journalist for the Goth
magazines examined.

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argument that androgyny is not available to female Goths as a form of subcultural capital.
Instead, hyperfemininity is available to both genders through women’s highly sexualized dress
and men’s transvestitism.33
The central argument of “Performing Identity” is controversial because the majority of
scholarly research emphasizes that Goths obsessed with vampiric dress are a small minority who
often form their own sub-group. For Hodkinson, the majority of Goths regarded other Goths who
were obsessed with the image of the vampire as a confirmation of negative media stereotypes.34
A possible explanation for Goulding and Saren’s focus on vampiric images is their status as
outsiders. As market researchers analyzing a polymorphous style, they may have latched onto the
vampire as an easily identifiable image familiar to readers of a marketing journal.
“Performing Identity” also differs from other Goth scholarship by viewing gender
expressions as a form of individual performance. Goodlad and Bibby are adamant that Goth male
androgyny is more than performance or symbolism. Instead, it is part of a substantive “Goth state
of mind” which occurs whether or not Goth men take part in cross-dressing activities, and draws
men to the Goth subculture by offering opportunities to display behaviors associated with
femininity, such as sensitivity and theatricality.35
Due to the emphasis on performance and
fixation on what is generally considered a marginal feature of Goth style, “Performing Identity”
is recommended for scholars interested in gender as performance rather than gender as identity.
Goth as an Aging Community
Emerging research on subcultures and aging reveals that Goth stands apart from other
style based subcultures due to its continued collective identity. Hodkinson is at the forefront of
subcultural research in the article “Ageing in a Spectacular ‘Youth Culture’: Continuity, Change
and Community amongst Older Goths” in The British Journal of Sociology. Echoing his prior

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works, Hodkinson’s qualitative examination of contemporary Goth reveals it to be an aging
community with particular collective tastes as opposed to a youth subculture with a few isolated
older participants. This is a strong contrast to other style-based subcultures such as punk, whose
members articulate a more individualistic, internalized persona rather than a collective visual
style or identity.36
By interviewing the same subcultural participants as he did in Goth in the late
1990’s, Hodkinson creates a perhaps unintentional longitudinal analysis of the subculture. His
observations further discount Goulding and Saren’s postulation in “Gothic Entrepreneurs” that
subcultural commodification eventually leads to disillusionment. Group belonging, collective
style, and publicly articulated displays of subcultural identity remained of paramount importance
to older Goths.37
Hodkinson’s subsequent essay “The Collective Ageing of a Goth Festival” in the book
Ageing and Y
outh Cultures: Music, Style, and Identity specifically analyzes how the Whitby
Goth Festival has adapted to the changing priorities of an older community with adult
responsibilities. The most striking change was the move towards a family-oriented atmosphere. It
was typical at Whitby in 2010 to see Goths in their thirties and forties with small children
dressed in Goth-oriented clothing, and the festival offered a comedy club, dog walks with dogs
adorned in Goth accessories, and a children’s disco.38
Whitby’s updated opportunities for
consumption also catered towards an older clientele. New products created opportunities for
Goth entrepreneurs, who created and sold elaborate Goth-styled wedding outfits as well as Goth-
themed clothing for babies and small children.39
“The Collective Ageing of a Goth Festival” also delves into issues of subcultural style,
gender, and aging. Clothing and accessories for sale at Whitby placed a greater emphasis on
styles flattering to older bodies and current Gothic trends, which favored more traditional

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displays of gender roles. Feminine forms of clothing and extensive makeup on men were far less
prevalent, while traditional masculine features such as goatees and shorter hair had become
commonplace.40
Fig 2. A Goth family surrounded by bystanders at the 2011 Whitby Goth Weekend.41
An implication of Hodkinson’s research at Whitby is that purchasing family-oriented
products in the company of other Goths simultaneously reiterates a communal subcultural
identity and passes subcultural style down to another generation. It will be intriguing to see if
Hodkinson continues his longitudinal research to explore the sartorial and consumptive choices
of children raised by Goths in relation to both subcultural identity and gender roles. There may
also be a relationship between commodification processes and new products marketed to older
Goths. If Goth has become co-opted by the mainstream, as Goulding and Saren suggest, do these
niche products bear any relationship to what is available in mainstream culture, or are they
produced by Goth entrepreneurs anticipating the desires of their community?

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Future Avenues for Researchers
Goth subculture offers a number of topics ready for exploration by scholars of consumer
culture, advertising, music, and fashion. The most striking omission in the study of Goth may be
the paucity of research on the American Goth subculture. Despite primary research
demonstrating that Goth subculture is characterized by peacefulness and tolerance, studies on
Goth in America continue to paint the subculture as a dangerous and violent youth phenomenon
linked to the April 1999 Columbine High School mass shooting in Littleton, Colorado42
, which is
reminiscent of relatively antiquated Chicago School theories of youth deviance. Ethnographic
research in America would immediately dispel this notion of Goth as a violent subculture as well
as examine the applicability of existing class-based CCCS analyses to American subcultures.
Researchers of American consumer culture may find Goth a topic of acute interest, as it
has recently reappeared in mainstream culture with the bestselling Monster High children’s dolls
and the ubiquity of products associated with Stephenie Meyer’s Twilight novels. One potential
topic for field research is an examination of Goth consumptive practices in terms of mainstream
and subcultural retailers. Where are these new Goth-themed products sold, and where do Goths
purchase them (if they purchase them at all)? Do Goths consider these products part of Goth’s
influence on the mainstream or commodification of their subculture? Can shopping at subcultural
retailers or making clothing and products at home be used as forms of resistance to
commodification? Consumer researchers may also examine the role of the Internet in Goth
entrepreneurship. Internet shopping was far less prevalent when the majority of Goth scholarship
was performed in the early 2000’s, and “shopping at subcultural retailers” could easily translate
to purchasing products from the large Goth oriented websites Alchemy Gothic or Lip Service, or

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from small Etsy storefronts selling homemade Goth products and accessories. Does online
shopping from subcultural retailers reinforce any kind of Goth identity?
Another unexplored consumer research topic is the use of Goth inspired images in
American advertising. How is Goth used to sell consumer products to mainstream audiences?
How does mainstream advertising portray Goths when compared to advertising in subcultural
magazines such as Gothic Beauty or Darkest Goth? Does any mainstream advertising
specifically target a Goth audience, and what products are most often marketed to goths?
Surprisingly, the roles of music and musical performers are also underexplored in Goth
scholarship. Hodkinson’s Goth is the only work to mention music and limits the discussion of
music to a commodity. What music can be considered Goth, and why does this music appeal to
the Goth community? Another possible research topic is tracing the historical origin and style
development of Goth performers, and examining how their images and performance styles have
affected the subculture.
A final avenue for scholarship is an examination of Goth stylistic trends in relation to the
future of the subculture. Hodkinson details how Goth style has changed and adapted to older
bodies, but the subculture continues to attract younger members around the world43
, and there is
no scholarly mention of their sartorial choices. A possibility is that younger Goths are attracted
to emerging styles such as steampunk, which is influenced by 19th
century science fiction and
synthesizes Victorian elements of dress such as corsets and waistcoats with modern accessories
altered to have the appearance of Victorian objects.

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Fig. 3. Steampunk style in Baltimore.44
An examination of trends among younger American Goths could also assist in
determining whether the American subculture parallels Hodkinson’s work on the collective
community of aging Goths in Britain, or if Goth is splintering off into new subcultures due to
changing styles and tastes. Further research on Goth consumptive practices and style will be
necessary to understand the future of American Goth.

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Notes
1
Paul Hodkinson, Goth: Identity, Style and Subculture (London: Berg, 2002), 38.
2
Dunja Brill, Goth Culture: Gender, Sexuality and Style (Oxford: Berg, 2008), 3,4,37.
3
Ibid., 4.
4
[Bauhaus, Live at Lantaarn.] Photograph. http://Gothic-
addiction.blogspot.com/2010/12/bootleg-bauhaus-live-at-lantaarn.html. Accessed December
2013.
5
Ibid., 10.
6
Andy Bennett and Keith Kahn-Harris, Introduction to After Subculture: Critical Studies in
Contemporary Y
outh Culture (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 4.
7
Dick Hebdige. Subculture: The Meaning of Style (New York: Routledge, 1971), 99.
8
Hodkinson, Goth.
9
David Muggleton, Inside Subculture: The Postmodern Meaning of Style (Oxford: Berg,
2000).
10
Andy Bennett, “Subcultures or Neotribes?” in The Popular Music Studies Reader (New
York: Routledge, 2006).
11
John W. Schouten and James H. McAlexander, “Subcultures of Consumption: An
Ethnographic Study of the New Bikers,” Journal of Consumer Research 22, no. 1 (June 1995),
43. Accessed October 2013. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2489699.
12
Sarah Thornton,“Understanding Hipness: ‘Subcultural Capital as Feminist Tool.’” In The
Popular Music Studies Reader, edited by Andy Bennett, Barry Shank, and Jason Toynbee (New
York: Routledge, 2006), 100.

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13
Hodkinson, Goth, 7.
14
Ibid., 29-33.
15
Ibid., 15.
16
Ibid., 132.
17
Ibid., 115.
18
Ibid., 132.
19
Ibid., 150.
20
Ibid., 91.
21
Ibid., 92.
22
Christina Goulding and Michael Saren, “‘Gothic’ Entrepreneurs: A Study of the
Subcultural Commodification Process.” In Consumer Tribes, edited by Bernard Cova, Robert V.
Kozinets, and Avi Shankar (London: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2007), 232.
23
Ibid., 234-35.
24
Ibid., 242.
25
Goodlad and Bibby, “Introduction,” 7.
26
Ibid., 18.
27
Brill, Goth Culture, 37.
28
Ibid., 97.
29
Ibid., 67.
30
Ibid., 49.
31
Ibid.,176-177.

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32
Christina Goulding and Michael Saren, “Performing Identity: An Analysis of Gender
Expressions at the Whitby Goth Festival,” Consumption Markets & Culture 12 (2009): 29,
accessed November 2013, doi 10.1080/10253860802560813.
33
Ibid., 40.
34
Hodkinson. Goth, 46.
35
Goodlad and Bibby, “Introduction,” 21.
36
Paul Hodkinson, “Ageing in a Spectacular ‘Youth Culture’: Continuity, Change and
Community amongst Older Goths,” The British Journal of Sociology 62, no. 2 (2011): 265,
Accessed October 2013, doi: 10.1111/j.1468-4446.2011.01364.x.
37
Ibid., 277.
38
Paul Hodkinson, “The Collective Ageing of a Goth Festival,” in Ageing and Y
outh
Cultures: Music, Style and Identity, edited by Andy Bennett and Paul Hodkinson. (Oxford: Berg,
2012), 137.
39
Ibid., 143.
40
Ibid., 141.
41
[Goth family]. Photograph.
http://www.wonderfulwhitby.co.uk/wonderfulwhitbyblog/whitby-Goth-weekend-november-
2011/. Accessed December 2013.
42
Carolyn M. Rutledge, Don Rimer, and Micah Scott. “Vulnerable Goth Teens: The Role of
Schools in This Psychosocial High-Risk Culture.” Journal of School Health 78, no. 9 (2008):
459–464, accessed December 2013, doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2008.00331.x.
43
Goodlad and Bibby, “Introduction,” 33.

21. Bush 21
44
Anna Fischer, Baltimore Explorers League. Photograph.
http://steampunkpictures.net/pics/details/803.html. Accessed December 2013.

22. Bush 22
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