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Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
Presented by Weldon ‘Mak’ Makela
Senior Failure Analysis Engineer
Materials Testing & Analysis Group, Element St. Paul




  April 26, 2012       Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
Future Topics for webinars
•   Metallurgical Failure Analysis for Problem Solving-Dec. 4, 2011
•   Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels-April 26, 2012
•   Heat Treating
•   Stainless Steels
•   Tool Steels
•   Aluminum Alloys
•   Surface Engineering
•   Corrosion




                                     Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels      2
Carbon and low-alloy steels
•   What is steel?
•   Iron-carbon phase diagram.
•   Carbon and low-alloy steel classifications.
•   Mechanical properties.
•   Microstructure.
•   Application.
•   Structural Steels.
•   Specifications and selection of carbon and low-alloy steels.

•   This presentation will not cover cast steels, coated products, forgings, cast
    irons, ultra-high strength or other specialty steels.
•   Tool steels and stainless steels will be covered in separate presentations.



Source: Metals Handbooks, 10th Edition, ASM International.




                                              Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels    3
What is steel?
• Steel is iron with small amounts of carbon and other elements added to
  impart unique properties in the material.
• Pure iron is soft, ductile and has low strength.
• Steel is made by reducing iron ore to iron, which contains carbon and
  other impurities. Further refining reduces the impurities, controls
  carbon and other element content.
• Steels consist of iron with varying amounts of carbon:
   – Carbon content varies from 0.02-1.25%.
   – Carbon is the primary elemental addition to increase strength.
   – Carbon allows for heat treatment to increase strength.
• Other elemental additions improve properties:
   – Manganese-up to 2.00%.
   – Silicon-up to 1.0%.
   – Chromium, nickel, molybdenum, and other elements in varying quantities.



                                           Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels         4
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram




                    Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels   5
Carbon Steels
• The most common metal used to manufacture products.
   -   Low-carbon steels: Carbon content varies from 0.05% to 0.30%.
   -   Medium-carbon steels: Carbon content varies from 0.30% to 0.60%.
   -   High-carbon steels: Carbon content varies from 0.60% to 0.95%.


• Other elements commonly found in carbon steels:
   -   Manganese is controlled to less than 2.0%.
   -   Sulfur is controlled to 0.35% maximum.
   -   Phosphorous is controlled to 0.12% maximum.
   -   Silicon is usually controlled to less than 0.60%.
   -   Lead, when added is controlled to less than 0.35%.
   -   Other elements are not controlled but are usually held to less than 2.0%.




                                             Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels           6
Low-Alloy Steels
Elements are added to modify the basic carbon steel compositions to
provide superior properties.
• Manganese, silicon, chromium, nickel and molybdenum are the most
   common additions to form low-alloy steels.
• Vanadium, niobium, aluminum, tungsten, copper and other elements
   are added to provide additional specific characteristics.
• Total elemental additions are less than 10%.
Properties enhanced by alloying:
• Hardenability - the ability to be strengthened through heat treatment.
• Toughness - the ability to withstand impact loads.
• Environmental resistance - weathering and other corrosive
   environments.
• Elevated temperature resistance.


                                    Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels       7
Classifications of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
• Plain carbon Steels: Carbon, manganese, phosphorous and sulfur are
  controlled. Other elements are not controlled.

• Resulfurized, rephosphorized or leaded steels: Sulfur, phosphorous or
  lead are intentionally added to improve machineability.

• Low-alloy steels: Controlled additions of elements are utilized to
  enhance properties and to provide specific characteristics.

• Structural steels: All steels could be used as structural steels but we
  will focus on a group called the High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA)
  Steels.




                                     Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels        8
Classification of Steels
Classification can depend on:
• Composition―carbon, low-alloy, tool or stainless steels.
• Manufacturing method―open hearth, basic oxygen, electric
   furnace, vacuum processed.
• Finishing method―hot or cold rolled, cold finished, cold drawn.
• Product form―bar, plate, sheet, strip, wire, tubing, or structural shape.
• Deoxidation practice―killed, semikilled, capped or rimmed.
• Microstructure―ferritic, pearlitic, or martensitic.
• Strength level―specified in ASTM or other standards.
• Heat treatment―annealed, normalized, spherodized or quenched and
   tempered.
• Quality descriptors―commercial, forging, drawing, or aircraft quality.



                                     Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels        9
Carbon Steel Nomenclature
SAE-AISI: Four digit designation.
• First 2 digits define the alloy group. For example:
     – A 10 in the front indicates the group is a plain carbon steel.
     – Resulfurized carbon steels start with 11, followed by the carbon content.
     – Resulfurized and rephosphorized carbon steels will start with a 12, followed by the
       carbon content.
     – High manganese carbon steels will start with a 15, followed by the carbon
       content for manganese contents between 1.00-1.65%.
•   Last 2 digits indicate the nominal carbon content.
     – Plain carbon steels will have the designation of: SAE 1005 – SAE 1095. This
       indicates the nominal carbon content will vary from 0.05%-0.95%.
•   AISI – American Iron and Steel Institute designation is slowly disappearing.
•   SAE – Society of Automotive Engineers is more common.
•   UNS – Unified Numbering System is a worldwide designation for composition
    of metals and alloys. For example: UNS G10200 is the designation for SAE
    1020 carbon steel.


                                             Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels                10
SAE-AISI Carbon & Low-Alloy Steel Nomenclature
    Type of Carbon/Alloy Steel Group   Numeral and Digital Designation                     Nominal Alloy Content, %

Carbon Steels                                       10xx                 C=0.05-0.95%
                                                    11xx                 S<0.33%
                                                    12xx                 S<0.35, P=0.12%
                                                    15xx                 1.00<Mn<1.65%

Manganese Steels                                    13xx                 1.60<Mn<1.90%

Nickel Steels                                       23xx                 Ni=3.50%
                                                    25xx                 Ni=5.00%

Nickel-Chromium Steels                              31xx                 Ni=1.25, Cr=0.65 & 0.80
                                                    32xx                 Ni=1.75, Cr=1.07
                                                    33xx                 Ni=3.50, Cr=1.50 & 1.57
                                                    34xx                 Ni=3.00, Cr=0.77

Molybdenum Steels                                   40xx                 Mo=0.20 & 0.25
                                                    44xx                 Mo=0.40 & 0.52

Cr-Mo Steels                                        41xx                 Cr=0.50, 0.80, 0.95, Mo=0.12, 0.20, 0.25, 0.30

Ni-Cr-Mo Steels                                     43xx                 Ni=1.82, Cr=0.50 & 0.80, Mo=0.25
                                                   43BVxx                Ni=1.82, Cr=0.50, Mo=0.12 & 0.25, V=0.03 Min.
                                                    47xx                 Ni=1.05, Cr=0.45, Mo=0.20 & 0.35
                                                    81xx                 Ni=0.30, Cr=0.040, Mo=0.12
                                                    86xx                 Ni=0.55, Cr=0.50, Mo=0.20
                                                    87xx                 Ni=0.55, Cr=0.50, Mo=0.25
                                                    88xx                 Ni=0.55, Cr=0.50, Mo=0.35
                                                    93xx                 Ni=3.25, Cr=1.20, Mo=0.12
                                                    94xx                 Ni=0.45, Cr=0.40, Mo=0.12
                                                    97xx                 Ni=0.55, Cr=0.20, Mo=0.20
                                                    98xx                 Ni=1.00, Cr=0.80, Mo=0.25

                                                             Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels                                  11
SAE-AISI Carbon & Alloy Steel Nomenclature, continued

     Type of Carbon/Alloy Steel Group   Numeral and Digital Designation                    Nominal Alloy Content, %

Ni-Mo Steels                                         46xx                 Ni=0.85 & 1.82, Mo=0.20 & 0.25
                                                     48xx                 Ni=3.50, Mo=0.25

Cr Steels                                            50xx                 Cr=0.27, 0.40, 0.50, 0.65
                                                     51xx                 Cr=0.80, 0.87, 0.92, 0.95, 1.00, 1.05

Cr - Bearing Steels                                 50xxx                 C=1.0% Min., Cr=0.50
                                                    51xxx                 C=1.0% Min., Cr=1.02
                                                    52xxx                 C=1.0% Min., Cr=1.45

Cr - Vanadium Steels                                 61xx                 Cr=0.60, 0.80, 0.95, V=0.10 %, 0.15 % Min.

Tungsten-Cr Steels                                   72xx                 W=1.75, Cr=0.75



Si-Mn Steels                                         92xx                 Si=1.40 & 2.00, Mn=0.65, 0.82, 0.85, Cr=0 and 0.65 %



High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels                       9xx                  Various SAE Grades

Boron Steels                                        xxBxx                 B denotes boron steel

Leaded Steels                                       xxLxx                 L denotes leaded steel




                                                            Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels                                     12
Mechanical Properties of Carbon and Low-Alloy
Steels

•   Mechanical properties vs. carbon content.
•   Mechanical properties vs. manganese content.
•   Mechanical properties vs. cold work.
•   Mechanical properties vs. heat treatment.
•   Impact properties.
•   Fatigue properties.




                                   Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels   13
Typical Stress/Strain Curve for Steel




                       Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels   14
Mechanical Properties vs. Carbon Content

                      HOT ROLLED CARBON STEEL BARS, MANGANESE <1.0%
          140


          120


          100


           80
    KSI




                                                                                   Tensile Strength
           60
                                                                                   Yield Strength

           40


           20


            0
                0.1   0.2   0.3       0.4    0.5      0.6     0.7     0.8    0.9
                                  NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, %




                                                   Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels                        15
Mechanical Properties vs. Manganese Content

                   HOT ROLLED CARBON STEEL BARS, MANGANESE
                                    >1.0%
             120


             100


              80
       KSI




              60
                                                                           Tensile Strength
                                                                           Yield Strength
              40


              20


               0
                    0.25    0.36      0.41       0.48       0.52
                           NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, %




                                             Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels                      16
Tensile Strength vs. Manganese Content

                       EFFECT OF MANGANESE CONTENT ON TENSILE
                                     STRENGTH
             140


             120


             100


              80
       KSI




              60                                                                Mn <1.0%
                                                                                Mn >1.0%
              40


              20


               0
                   0       0.2         0.4        0.6         0.8           1
                                 NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, %




                                              Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels                  17
Yield Strength vs. Manganese Content
                       EFFECT OF MANGANESE CONTENT ON YIELD
                                    STRENGTH
            80


            70


            60


            50
      KSI




            40
                                                                               Mn <1.0%

            30                                                                 Mn >1.0%


            20


            10


            0
                 0.1     0.2   0.3   0.4   0.5   0.6    0.7   0.8    0.9
                               NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, %




                                                 Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels              18
Mechanical Properties vs. Cold Work

                        COLD DRAWN CARBON STEEL BARS
            120



            100



             80
      KSI




             60
                                                                           Tensile Strength
                                                                           Yield Strength
             40



             20



              0
                  0.1       0.2      0.3       0.4        0.5
                          NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, %




                                             Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels                      19
Tensile Strength vs. Cold Work

               EFFECT OF COLD WORK ON TENSILE STRENGTH

              140


              120


              100


              80
        KSI




                                                                                 Hot Rolled
              60
                                                                                 Cold Drawn

              40


              20


                0
                    0.1   0.2    0.3   0.4   0.5    0.6   0.7   0.8   0.9
                                NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, %




                                                   Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels                20
Yield Strength vs. Cold Work

                   EFFECT OF COLD WORK ON YIELD STRENGTH
             90

             80

             70

             60

             50
       KSI




             40                                                               Hot Rolled
                                                                              Cold Drawn
             30

             20

             10

             0
                  0.1   0.2   0.3   0.4   0.5   0.6   0.7   0.8   0.9
                              NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, %




                                                Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels                21
Quenched & Tempered Hardness vs. Carbon Content



                                    Rockwell C   Ultimate Tensile
                                   Hardness, HRC  Strength, ksi.

                                          55            301
                                          50            255
                                          45            214
                                          40            182
                                          35            157
                                          30            136
                                          25            120
                                          20            108




                      Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels                   22
General Comments on Impact Properties of Carbon
and Low-Alloy Steels
1. Carbon and low-alloy steels have a ductile-to-brittle transition
   temperature:
    - Above the DBTT the material will fail in a ductile manner and the
      absorbed impact energy is high.
    - Below the DBTT the material will fail in a brittle manner (cleavage)
      with low absorbed energy.

2. The transition temperature can be shifted by alloy additions:
   - Manganese and silicon will lower the DBTT.
   - Sulfur and phosphorous will raise the DBTT.

3. The energy absorbed can be altered by alloy additions:
   - Nickel will increase the toughness at low temperatures.
   - Chromium, molybdenum and copper indirectly increase absorbed
   energy through hardenability enhancement.
                                     Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels        23
Impact Properties vs. Carbon Content




                 Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels   24
General Statements about Fatigue
Fatigue is a progressive, localized and permanent change in a material subjected to
fluctuating strains, at stresses with maximum values less than the ultimate tensile strength of
the material.
1. The stress can be substantially less than the ultimate tensile strength.
2. The alternating strains can lead to crack initiation and propagation.
3. As the crack grows in size, final failure can occur catastrophically when the remaining
      cross section can no longer support the applied load.
4. Steels have a fatigue limit, which is approximately 50% of the ultimate tensile strength.
5. The following variables will affect the fatigue limit:
        - Surface roughness
        - Temperature
        - Decarburization, carburizing, nitriding
        - Designs that create stress risers
        - Microstructure and grain size
        - Material discontinuities
        - Processing discontinuities
        - Residual stress
        - Corrosion or erosion
        - Service-induced nicks or gouges
        - Material properties, carbon content


                                               Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels                25
Typical S-N Curve for Steel




                      Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels   26
SAE 1005 Low Carbon Steel




                   Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels   27
SAE 1018 Low Carbon Steel




                   Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels   28
SAE 8620 Low Carbon Alloy Steel




                    Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels   29
SAE 1045 Medium Carbon Steel




                   Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels   30
SAE 1144 Resulfurized Steel




                     Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels   31
SAE 1060 Medium Carbon Steel




                   Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels   32
SAE 5150 Alloy Steel




                       Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels   33
Applications for Low-Carbon Steels
Low-carbon steels: Carbon content less than 0.30%.
• Products are sheet, strip, plate, wire, bar, tubing and structural shapes.
• Can be purchased in hot or cold-rolled, cold-finished, annealed, cold
  drawn condition.
• Typical applications:
  - Body panels for vehicles, appliances, etc.
  - Coated products such as galvanized sheet, strip or wire.
  - Low strength wire products.
  - Structural shapes.
  - Chain
• Weldable, formable, heat treatable to moderate strength levels.

Note: Low-carbon steels are often referred to as ‘mild’ steels.


                                     Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels        34
Applications for Medium-Carbon Steels
Medium-carbon steels-carbon content between 0.30-0.60%.
• Increased carbon and manganese allow the medium-carbon steels to
  be quenched and tempered to high strength levels.
• Purchased in many forms.
• Typical uses:
   - Shafts, couplings, crankshafts, gears and other high-strength
  applications.
   - Rails, railway wheels, rail axles.
   - Forgings, castings.
•   Can be welded if properly pre-heated and post-heated.




                                 Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels    35
Applications for High-Carbon Steels
High-carbon steels: Carbon content between 0.60-1.00%.
• High carbon allows heat treatment to very high strength levels.
• Cold working produces products with very high strength levels.
• Typical uses:
    - Springs.
    - High strength wire such as music wire.
    - Tool applications-water hardening tool steels are commonly high -
   carbon steels.
   - Other products requiring high strength with a minimum of processing.
•    Normally not weldable because of high-carbon content.




                                    Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels      36
Applications for Low-Alloy Steels
Low-alloy steels: Carbon varies from 0.10-1.00%. Elements are added to
produce unique capabilities.
• Heat-treatable to high strength and toughness.
• Elemental additions can improve environmental degradation under
   certain conditions.
• Elemental additions up to 10% can improve oxidation and corrosion
   resistance at elevated temperatures.
• Common uses:
   - Bearings and bearing races.
   - Weathering steels.
   - A myriad of parts and products that must be heat-treated to high-
   strength or high-toughness.

Note: Low-alloy steels gain strength through heat treatment.

                                    Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels   37
Structural Steels
High-strength carbon and low-alloy steels having yield strengths greater
than 275 MPa (40 ksi) and can be classified as follows:
• As-rolled carbon-manganese steels (13XX and 15XX).
• Heat-treated carbon steels.*
• Heat-treated low-alloy steels.*
• As-rolled high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels, also know as
   microalloyed steels.

*Notice that we have been talking about carbon and low-alloy steels, but
now they are heat treated for use as high-strength structural steel.




                                    Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels       38
High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels (HSLA)
Primarily utilized for structural applications requiring:
• High strength: HSLA steels utilize low carbon content with small amounts
   of alloying elements and a variety of controlled processing parameters to
   obtain high yield strengths, greater than 275 MPa (40 ksi.).
• Good toughness, weldability, formability and atmospheric and other
   corrosion resistance.
• Availability as hot-rolled sheet, strip, and plate; hot-rolled and cold-finished
   bar; tubing, pipe and structural shapes. Can also be furnished as cold-
   rolled sheet and forgings.

Applications include construction of bridges, buildings, drilling rigs, vehicle
parts, piling, ships, etc.

Described in at least 18 ASTM specifications, which provide chemical
composition, mechanical properties, forms available and intended uses.
Many of these specs list several grades with different strength levels.



                                         Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels          39
Specifications for HSLA Steels
ASTM Specification            Available Forms             Special Characteristics                         Intended Uses

      A242           Plate, Bar, Shapes ≤ 4 in.   Atmospheric weathering                    Welded, bolted or riveted construction

      A572           Plate, Bar, Shapes ≤ 6 in.   6 grades with YS ≥ 42 ksi                 Bridges and buildings

      A588           Plate, Bar, Shapes ≤ 8 in.   Atmospheric weathering, YS ≥ 50 ksi       Welded bridges and buildings

      A606           HR & CR Sheet and Strip      Atmospheric weathering                    Weight savings and durability

      A607           HR & CR Sheet and Strip      6 grades with YS ≥ 45 ksi                 Weight savings and durability

      A618           Welded and Seamless Tubing   3 grades with different characteristics   Welded, bolted or riveted construction

      A633           Plate, Bar, Shapes ≤ 6 in.   5 grades with YS ≥ 42 ksi                 Service down to -50°F

      A656           Plate ≤ 5/8 in.              YS ≥ 80 ksi                               Truck, crane, railroad car frames

      A690           Piling                       Corrosion resistance                      Sea water exposure applications

A709, Gr 50 & 50W    Plate, Shapes ≤ 4 in.        Minimum YS = 50 ksi                       Bridges

      A714           Pipe, welded and seamless    1/2 to 26 in. Pipe                        Piping

      A715           HR Sheet, Strip              4 grades, YS = 50-80 ksi                  Structural, formability & weldability

      A808           HR Plate ≤ 2 1/2 in.         CVN 30-45 ft-lb @ -50°F                   Railway tank cars

      A812           Coiled sheet                 YS = 65-85 ksi                            Welded pressure vessels

      A841           Plate ≤ 4 in.                YS = 45-50 ksi                            Welded pressure vessels

      A847           Welded and Seamless Tubing   YS ≥ 50 ksi                               Bridges and buildings

      A860           Welded fittings              YS ≥ 70 ksi                               Gas, oil transmission lines

      A871           Plate ≤ 1 3/8 in.            Atmospheric weathering                    Tubular structures and poles

                                                                Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels                                         40
Specifications for Carbon & Low-Alloy Steels
Specifications are written statements defining product requirements.
• Describes both technical and commercial requirements.
• Controls procurement.
• May cover any or all of the following parameters:
  - Scope defines product classification, size range, processing, or other
  information deemed useful to both supplier and user.
  - Chemical composition of the carbon or low-alloy steel.
  - Quality statement describes special requirements such as steel
  quality, type and processing methods.
  - Quantitative requirements identify chemical composition ranges,
  mechanical and physical properties and test methods germane to the
  application.
  - Additional requirements may include such items as size and
  straightness tolerances, surface and edge finish, packaging and
  loading instructions.



                                     Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels       41
Specifications, continued
Most existing specifications have been prepared by engineering
societies, associations, and institutions whose members
make, specify, purchase and/or use steel products. Some common ones are
listed below:
•    Association of American Railroads – AAR
•    American Bureau of Shipbuilding – ABS
•    American Railway Engineering Association – AREA
•    American Society of Mechanical Engineers – ASME
•    American Petroleum Institute – API
•    American Society for Testing and Materials – ASTM
•    Society of Automotive Engineers – SAE
•    Aerospace Material Specifications (of SAE) – AMS
•    Federal and Military Specifications – FED and MIL

Foreign countries have their own material and process specification
systems, such as the DIN, JIS, BS, AFNOR, UNI, etc. Many of these
specifications reference some ASTM specifications.

                                     Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels      42
Specifications, continued
ASTM is the most widely used specification system because they are
complete for procurement purposes. Most ASTM specs include
composition, mechanical, dimensional, quality and testing
requirements, or reference other ASTM specs that cover specific aspects
of a material.
• ASTM specifications are used worldwide.
• Some federal and military procurements are gradually transitioning to
   ASTM specifications.
• Material descriptions use common SAE-AISI designations but also
   include the UNS system to identify a material composition.

A common ASME specification is referred to as the Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code. This code is the authority for any application involving the
design and construction of boilers, pressure vessels and associated
piping, including nuclear applications. Many ASME material specifications
closely parallel ASTM.


                                    Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels      43
Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Selection
Material and process selection should always be based on the following
considerations:
• Material strength with reference to operational loads, vibration,
   temperature and environmental exposures.
• Processing parameters such as formability, weldability, machineability
   and other fabrication considerations to produce the product.
• Form of material to most economically fabricate the product whether it
   be sheet, strip, plate, bar, or structural shape.
• Availability of the material in the required form, quantity and price.
• Finishing processes such as painting, plating, heat treatment, etc.

Always use a material and/or process specification to procure or finish a
product.



                                     Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels       44
Some General Comments
1. Resulfurized, rephosphorized or leaded steels are not generally
   weldable or heat treatable.
2. The above materials should not be used in dynamic or cyclical
   applications, especially in cold weather environments.
3. When designing products, ensure the maximum load is no greater
   than 1/3 of the yield strength of the material and well below the fatigue
   limit.
4. Never use a steel in the ‘as quenched’ condition. Always temper the
   steel.
5. When welding, always use pre-heat and/or post-heating when the
   carbon content is more than 0.30%.
6. A low-alloy steel is not significantly stronger than a plain carbon steel
   with the same carbon content, in the same condition. Low-alloy steels
   provide high-strength, only after heat treating. Save money if you
   don’t need high-strength.

                                     Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels        45
Contact us for further information


  Weldon ‘Mak’ Makela              Josh Schwantes
  Senior Failure Analyst           Metallurgical Engineering Manager
  651 659 7275                     651 659 7205
  weldon.makela@element.com        joshua.schwantes@element.com


  Craig Stolpestad                 Mark Eggers
  Sales Manager                    Inside Sales, NDT & Metals
  651 659 7206                     651 659 7349
  craig.stolpestad@element.com     mark.eggers@element.com




                                 Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels           46

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Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels for Non-Metallurgists

  • 1. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels Presented by Weldon ‘Mak’ Makela Senior Failure Analysis Engineer Materials Testing & Analysis Group, Element St. Paul April 26, 2012 Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
  • 2. Future Topics for webinars • Metallurgical Failure Analysis for Problem Solving-Dec. 4, 2011 • Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels-April 26, 2012 • Heat Treating • Stainless Steels • Tool Steels • Aluminum Alloys • Surface Engineering • Corrosion Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 2
  • 3. Carbon and low-alloy steels • What is steel? • Iron-carbon phase diagram. • Carbon and low-alloy steel classifications. • Mechanical properties. • Microstructure. • Application. • Structural Steels. • Specifications and selection of carbon and low-alloy steels. • This presentation will not cover cast steels, coated products, forgings, cast irons, ultra-high strength or other specialty steels. • Tool steels and stainless steels will be covered in separate presentations. Source: Metals Handbooks, 10th Edition, ASM International. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 3
  • 4. What is steel? • Steel is iron with small amounts of carbon and other elements added to impart unique properties in the material. • Pure iron is soft, ductile and has low strength. • Steel is made by reducing iron ore to iron, which contains carbon and other impurities. Further refining reduces the impurities, controls carbon and other element content. • Steels consist of iron with varying amounts of carbon: – Carbon content varies from 0.02-1.25%. – Carbon is the primary elemental addition to increase strength. – Carbon allows for heat treatment to increase strength. • Other elemental additions improve properties: – Manganese-up to 2.00%. – Silicon-up to 1.0%. – Chromium, nickel, molybdenum, and other elements in varying quantities. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 4
  • 5. Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 5
  • 6. Carbon Steels • The most common metal used to manufacture products. - Low-carbon steels: Carbon content varies from 0.05% to 0.30%. - Medium-carbon steels: Carbon content varies from 0.30% to 0.60%. - High-carbon steels: Carbon content varies from 0.60% to 0.95%. • Other elements commonly found in carbon steels: - Manganese is controlled to less than 2.0%. - Sulfur is controlled to 0.35% maximum. - Phosphorous is controlled to 0.12% maximum. - Silicon is usually controlled to less than 0.60%. - Lead, when added is controlled to less than 0.35%. - Other elements are not controlled but are usually held to less than 2.0%. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 6
  • 7. Low-Alloy Steels Elements are added to modify the basic carbon steel compositions to provide superior properties. • Manganese, silicon, chromium, nickel and molybdenum are the most common additions to form low-alloy steels. • Vanadium, niobium, aluminum, tungsten, copper and other elements are added to provide additional specific characteristics. • Total elemental additions are less than 10%. Properties enhanced by alloying: • Hardenability - the ability to be strengthened through heat treatment. • Toughness - the ability to withstand impact loads. • Environmental resistance - weathering and other corrosive environments. • Elevated temperature resistance. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 7
  • 8. Classifications of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels • Plain carbon Steels: Carbon, manganese, phosphorous and sulfur are controlled. Other elements are not controlled. • Resulfurized, rephosphorized or leaded steels: Sulfur, phosphorous or lead are intentionally added to improve machineability. • Low-alloy steels: Controlled additions of elements are utilized to enhance properties and to provide specific characteristics. • Structural steels: All steels could be used as structural steels but we will focus on a group called the High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steels. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 8
  • 9. Classification of Steels Classification can depend on: • Composition―carbon, low-alloy, tool or stainless steels. • Manufacturing method―open hearth, basic oxygen, electric furnace, vacuum processed. • Finishing method―hot or cold rolled, cold finished, cold drawn. • Product form―bar, plate, sheet, strip, wire, tubing, or structural shape. • Deoxidation practice―killed, semikilled, capped or rimmed. • Microstructure―ferritic, pearlitic, or martensitic. • Strength level―specified in ASTM or other standards. • Heat treatment―annealed, normalized, spherodized or quenched and tempered. • Quality descriptors―commercial, forging, drawing, or aircraft quality. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 9
  • 10. Carbon Steel Nomenclature SAE-AISI: Four digit designation. • First 2 digits define the alloy group. For example: – A 10 in the front indicates the group is a plain carbon steel. – Resulfurized carbon steels start with 11, followed by the carbon content. – Resulfurized and rephosphorized carbon steels will start with a 12, followed by the carbon content. – High manganese carbon steels will start with a 15, followed by the carbon content for manganese contents between 1.00-1.65%. • Last 2 digits indicate the nominal carbon content. – Plain carbon steels will have the designation of: SAE 1005 – SAE 1095. This indicates the nominal carbon content will vary from 0.05%-0.95%. • AISI – American Iron and Steel Institute designation is slowly disappearing. • SAE – Society of Automotive Engineers is more common. • UNS – Unified Numbering System is a worldwide designation for composition of metals and alloys. For example: UNS G10200 is the designation for SAE 1020 carbon steel. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 10
  • 11. SAE-AISI Carbon & Low-Alloy Steel Nomenclature Type of Carbon/Alloy Steel Group Numeral and Digital Designation Nominal Alloy Content, % Carbon Steels 10xx C=0.05-0.95% 11xx S<0.33% 12xx S<0.35, P=0.12% 15xx 1.00<Mn<1.65% Manganese Steels 13xx 1.60<Mn<1.90% Nickel Steels 23xx Ni=3.50% 25xx Ni=5.00% Nickel-Chromium Steels 31xx Ni=1.25, Cr=0.65 & 0.80 32xx Ni=1.75, Cr=1.07 33xx Ni=3.50, Cr=1.50 & 1.57 34xx Ni=3.00, Cr=0.77 Molybdenum Steels 40xx Mo=0.20 & 0.25 44xx Mo=0.40 & 0.52 Cr-Mo Steels 41xx Cr=0.50, 0.80, 0.95, Mo=0.12, 0.20, 0.25, 0.30 Ni-Cr-Mo Steels 43xx Ni=1.82, Cr=0.50 & 0.80, Mo=0.25 43BVxx Ni=1.82, Cr=0.50, Mo=0.12 & 0.25, V=0.03 Min. 47xx Ni=1.05, Cr=0.45, Mo=0.20 & 0.35 81xx Ni=0.30, Cr=0.040, Mo=0.12 86xx Ni=0.55, Cr=0.50, Mo=0.20 87xx Ni=0.55, Cr=0.50, Mo=0.25 88xx Ni=0.55, Cr=0.50, Mo=0.35 93xx Ni=3.25, Cr=1.20, Mo=0.12 94xx Ni=0.45, Cr=0.40, Mo=0.12 97xx Ni=0.55, Cr=0.20, Mo=0.20 98xx Ni=1.00, Cr=0.80, Mo=0.25 Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 11
  • 12. SAE-AISI Carbon & Alloy Steel Nomenclature, continued Type of Carbon/Alloy Steel Group Numeral and Digital Designation Nominal Alloy Content, % Ni-Mo Steels 46xx Ni=0.85 & 1.82, Mo=0.20 & 0.25 48xx Ni=3.50, Mo=0.25 Cr Steels 50xx Cr=0.27, 0.40, 0.50, 0.65 51xx Cr=0.80, 0.87, 0.92, 0.95, 1.00, 1.05 Cr - Bearing Steels 50xxx C=1.0% Min., Cr=0.50 51xxx C=1.0% Min., Cr=1.02 52xxx C=1.0% Min., Cr=1.45 Cr - Vanadium Steels 61xx Cr=0.60, 0.80, 0.95, V=0.10 %, 0.15 % Min. Tungsten-Cr Steels 72xx W=1.75, Cr=0.75 Si-Mn Steels 92xx Si=1.40 & 2.00, Mn=0.65, 0.82, 0.85, Cr=0 and 0.65 % High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels 9xx Various SAE Grades Boron Steels xxBxx B denotes boron steel Leaded Steels xxLxx L denotes leaded steel Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 12
  • 13. Mechanical Properties of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels • Mechanical properties vs. carbon content. • Mechanical properties vs. manganese content. • Mechanical properties vs. cold work. • Mechanical properties vs. heat treatment. • Impact properties. • Fatigue properties. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 13
  • 14. Typical Stress/Strain Curve for Steel Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 14
  • 15. Mechanical Properties vs. Carbon Content HOT ROLLED CARBON STEEL BARS, MANGANESE <1.0% 140 120 100 80 KSI Tensile Strength 60 Yield Strength 40 20 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, % Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 15
  • 16. Mechanical Properties vs. Manganese Content HOT ROLLED CARBON STEEL BARS, MANGANESE >1.0% 120 100 80 KSI 60 Tensile Strength Yield Strength 40 20 0 0.25 0.36 0.41 0.48 0.52 NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, % Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 16
  • 17. Tensile Strength vs. Manganese Content EFFECT OF MANGANESE CONTENT ON TENSILE STRENGTH 140 120 100 80 KSI 60 Mn <1.0% Mn >1.0% 40 20 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, % Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 17
  • 18. Yield Strength vs. Manganese Content EFFECT OF MANGANESE CONTENT ON YIELD STRENGTH 80 70 60 50 KSI 40 Mn <1.0% 30 Mn >1.0% 20 10 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, % Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 18
  • 19. Mechanical Properties vs. Cold Work COLD DRAWN CARBON STEEL BARS 120 100 80 KSI 60 Tensile Strength Yield Strength 40 20 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, % Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 19
  • 20. Tensile Strength vs. Cold Work EFFECT OF COLD WORK ON TENSILE STRENGTH 140 120 100 80 KSI Hot Rolled 60 Cold Drawn 40 20 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, % Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 20
  • 21. Yield Strength vs. Cold Work EFFECT OF COLD WORK ON YIELD STRENGTH 90 80 70 60 50 KSI 40 Hot Rolled Cold Drawn 30 20 10 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 NOMINAL CARBON CONTENT, % Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 21
  • 22. Quenched & Tempered Hardness vs. Carbon Content Rockwell C Ultimate Tensile Hardness, HRC Strength, ksi. 55 301 50 255 45 214 40 182 35 157 30 136 25 120 20 108 Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 22
  • 23. General Comments on Impact Properties of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 1. Carbon and low-alloy steels have a ductile-to-brittle transition temperature: - Above the DBTT the material will fail in a ductile manner and the absorbed impact energy is high. - Below the DBTT the material will fail in a brittle manner (cleavage) with low absorbed energy. 2. The transition temperature can be shifted by alloy additions: - Manganese and silicon will lower the DBTT. - Sulfur and phosphorous will raise the DBTT. 3. The energy absorbed can be altered by alloy additions: - Nickel will increase the toughness at low temperatures. - Chromium, molybdenum and copper indirectly increase absorbed energy through hardenability enhancement. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 23
  • 24. Impact Properties vs. Carbon Content Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 24
  • 25. General Statements about Fatigue Fatigue is a progressive, localized and permanent change in a material subjected to fluctuating strains, at stresses with maximum values less than the ultimate tensile strength of the material. 1. The stress can be substantially less than the ultimate tensile strength. 2. The alternating strains can lead to crack initiation and propagation. 3. As the crack grows in size, final failure can occur catastrophically when the remaining cross section can no longer support the applied load. 4. Steels have a fatigue limit, which is approximately 50% of the ultimate tensile strength. 5. The following variables will affect the fatigue limit: - Surface roughness - Temperature - Decarburization, carburizing, nitriding - Designs that create stress risers - Microstructure and grain size - Material discontinuities - Processing discontinuities - Residual stress - Corrosion or erosion - Service-induced nicks or gouges - Material properties, carbon content Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 25
  • 26. Typical S-N Curve for Steel Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 26
  • 27. SAE 1005 Low Carbon Steel Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 27
  • 28. SAE 1018 Low Carbon Steel Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 28
  • 29. SAE 8620 Low Carbon Alloy Steel Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 29
  • 30. SAE 1045 Medium Carbon Steel Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 30
  • 31. SAE 1144 Resulfurized Steel Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 31
  • 32. SAE 1060 Medium Carbon Steel Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 32
  • 33. SAE 5150 Alloy Steel Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 33
  • 34. Applications for Low-Carbon Steels Low-carbon steels: Carbon content less than 0.30%. • Products are sheet, strip, plate, wire, bar, tubing and structural shapes. • Can be purchased in hot or cold-rolled, cold-finished, annealed, cold drawn condition. • Typical applications: - Body panels for vehicles, appliances, etc. - Coated products such as galvanized sheet, strip or wire. - Low strength wire products. - Structural shapes. - Chain • Weldable, formable, heat treatable to moderate strength levels. Note: Low-carbon steels are often referred to as ‘mild’ steels. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 34
  • 35. Applications for Medium-Carbon Steels Medium-carbon steels-carbon content between 0.30-0.60%. • Increased carbon and manganese allow the medium-carbon steels to be quenched and tempered to high strength levels. • Purchased in many forms. • Typical uses: - Shafts, couplings, crankshafts, gears and other high-strength applications. - Rails, railway wheels, rail axles. - Forgings, castings. • Can be welded if properly pre-heated and post-heated. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 35
  • 36. Applications for High-Carbon Steels High-carbon steels: Carbon content between 0.60-1.00%. • High carbon allows heat treatment to very high strength levels. • Cold working produces products with very high strength levels. • Typical uses: - Springs. - High strength wire such as music wire. - Tool applications-water hardening tool steels are commonly high - carbon steels. - Other products requiring high strength with a minimum of processing. • Normally not weldable because of high-carbon content. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 36
  • 37. Applications for Low-Alloy Steels Low-alloy steels: Carbon varies from 0.10-1.00%. Elements are added to produce unique capabilities. • Heat-treatable to high strength and toughness. • Elemental additions can improve environmental degradation under certain conditions. • Elemental additions up to 10% can improve oxidation and corrosion resistance at elevated temperatures. • Common uses: - Bearings and bearing races. - Weathering steels. - A myriad of parts and products that must be heat-treated to high- strength or high-toughness. Note: Low-alloy steels gain strength through heat treatment. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 37
  • 38. Structural Steels High-strength carbon and low-alloy steels having yield strengths greater than 275 MPa (40 ksi) and can be classified as follows: • As-rolled carbon-manganese steels (13XX and 15XX). • Heat-treated carbon steels.* • Heat-treated low-alloy steels.* • As-rolled high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels, also know as microalloyed steels. *Notice that we have been talking about carbon and low-alloy steels, but now they are heat treated for use as high-strength structural steel. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 38
  • 39. High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels (HSLA) Primarily utilized for structural applications requiring: • High strength: HSLA steels utilize low carbon content with small amounts of alloying elements and a variety of controlled processing parameters to obtain high yield strengths, greater than 275 MPa (40 ksi.). • Good toughness, weldability, formability and atmospheric and other corrosion resistance. • Availability as hot-rolled sheet, strip, and plate; hot-rolled and cold-finished bar; tubing, pipe and structural shapes. Can also be furnished as cold- rolled sheet and forgings. Applications include construction of bridges, buildings, drilling rigs, vehicle parts, piling, ships, etc. Described in at least 18 ASTM specifications, which provide chemical composition, mechanical properties, forms available and intended uses. Many of these specs list several grades with different strength levels. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 39
  • 40. Specifications for HSLA Steels ASTM Specification Available Forms Special Characteristics Intended Uses A242 Plate, Bar, Shapes ≤ 4 in. Atmospheric weathering Welded, bolted or riveted construction A572 Plate, Bar, Shapes ≤ 6 in. 6 grades with YS ≥ 42 ksi Bridges and buildings A588 Plate, Bar, Shapes ≤ 8 in. Atmospheric weathering, YS ≥ 50 ksi Welded bridges and buildings A606 HR & CR Sheet and Strip Atmospheric weathering Weight savings and durability A607 HR & CR Sheet and Strip 6 grades with YS ≥ 45 ksi Weight savings and durability A618 Welded and Seamless Tubing 3 grades with different characteristics Welded, bolted or riveted construction A633 Plate, Bar, Shapes ≤ 6 in. 5 grades with YS ≥ 42 ksi Service down to -50°F A656 Plate ≤ 5/8 in. YS ≥ 80 ksi Truck, crane, railroad car frames A690 Piling Corrosion resistance Sea water exposure applications A709, Gr 50 & 50W Plate, Shapes ≤ 4 in. Minimum YS = 50 ksi Bridges A714 Pipe, welded and seamless 1/2 to 26 in. Pipe Piping A715 HR Sheet, Strip 4 grades, YS = 50-80 ksi Structural, formability & weldability A808 HR Plate ≤ 2 1/2 in. CVN 30-45 ft-lb @ -50°F Railway tank cars A812 Coiled sheet YS = 65-85 ksi Welded pressure vessels A841 Plate ≤ 4 in. YS = 45-50 ksi Welded pressure vessels A847 Welded and Seamless Tubing YS ≥ 50 ksi Bridges and buildings A860 Welded fittings YS ≥ 70 ksi Gas, oil transmission lines A871 Plate ≤ 1 3/8 in. Atmospheric weathering Tubular structures and poles Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 40
  • 41. Specifications for Carbon & Low-Alloy Steels Specifications are written statements defining product requirements. • Describes both technical and commercial requirements. • Controls procurement. • May cover any or all of the following parameters: - Scope defines product classification, size range, processing, or other information deemed useful to both supplier and user. - Chemical composition of the carbon or low-alloy steel. - Quality statement describes special requirements such as steel quality, type and processing methods. - Quantitative requirements identify chemical composition ranges, mechanical and physical properties and test methods germane to the application. - Additional requirements may include such items as size and straightness tolerances, surface and edge finish, packaging and loading instructions. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 41
  • 42. Specifications, continued Most existing specifications have been prepared by engineering societies, associations, and institutions whose members make, specify, purchase and/or use steel products. Some common ones are listed below: • Association of American Railroads – AAR • American Bureau of Shipbuilding – ABS • American Railway Engineering Association – AREA • American Society of Mechanical Engineers – ASME • American Petroleum Institute – API • American Society for Testing and Materials – ASTM • Society of Automotive Engineers – SAE • Aerospace Material Specifications (of SAE) – AMS • Federal and Military Specifications – FED and MIL Foreign countries have their own material and process specification systems, such as the DIN, JIS, BS, AFNOR, UNI, etc. Many of these specifications reference some ASTM specifications. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 42
  • 43. Specifications, continued ASTM is the most widely used specification system because they are complete for procurement purposes. Most ASTM specs include composition, mechanical, dimensional, quality and testing requirements, or reference other ASTM specs that cover specific aspects of a material. • ASTM specifications are used worldwide. • Some federal and military procurements are gradually transitioning to ASTM specifications. • Material descriptions use common SAE-AISI designations but also include the UNS system to identify a material composition. A common ASME specification is referred to as the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. This code is the authority for any application involving the design and construction of boilers, pressure vessels and associated piping, including nuclear applications. Many ASME material specifications closely parallel ASTM. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 43
  • 44. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Selection Material and process selection should always be based on the following considerations: • Material strength with reference to operational loads, vibration, temperature and environmental exposures. • Processing parameters such as formability, weldability, machineability and other fabrication considerations to produce the product. • Form of material to most economically fabricate the product whether it be sheet, strip, plate, bar, or structural shape. • Availability of the material in the required form, quantity and price. • Finishing processes such as painting, plating, heat treatment, etc. Always use a material and/or process specification to procure or finish a product. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 44
  • 45. Some General Comments 1. Resulfurized, rephosphorized or leaded steels are not generally weldable or heat treatable. 2. The above materials should not be used in dynamic or cyclical applications, especially in cold weather environments. 3. When designing products, ensure the maximum load is no greater than 1/3 of the yield strength of the material and well below the fatigue limit. 4. Never use a steel in the ‘as quenched’ condition. Always temper the steel. 5. When welding, always use pre-heat and/or post-heating when the carbon content is more than 0.30%. 6. A low-alloy steel is not significantly stronger than a plain carbon steel with the same carbon content, in the same condition. Low-alloy steels provide high-strength, only after heat treating. Save money if you don’t need high-strength. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 45
  • 46. Contact us for further information Weldon ‘Mak’ Makela Josh Schwantes Senior Failure Analyst Metallurgical Engineering Manager 651 659 7275 651 659 7205 weldon.makela@element.com joshua.schwantes@element.com Craig Stolpestad Mark Eggers Sales Manager Inside Sales, NDT & Metals 651 659 7206 651 659 7349 craig.stolpestad@element.com mark.eggers@element.com Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels 46