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Benefits of Taxonomies
For content, information,
and knowledge management
February 2021
Heather Hedden
Excerpted from the Taxonomy 101 workshop
of KMWorld Connect conference, November 12, 2020
 Knowledge and data engineer, Semantic Web Company
 Instructor of online, virtual, and onsite taxonomy courses and workshops.
Hedden Information Management
 Former consultant; former staff taxonomist at Gale/Cengage Learning,
Viziant, First Wind
 Author of The Accidental Taxonomist (2010, 2016, Information Today, Inc.)
About Heather Hedden
2
© 2020 Heather Hedden
What is a taxonomy for?
 Terms/concepts are used to tag/index/categorize content to make it easier
to be found and retrieved
 supporting better findability than search alone
 The taxonomy is an intermediary that links the user to the desired content.
 The taxonomy should suit the content and the users.
Introduction to Taxonomies
3
Users
Content Taxonomy
© 2020 Heather Hedden
Two main approaches to taxonomies
1. A hierarchy of terms/concepts/topics/categories arranged with narrower
topics/subcategories displayed under their broader/parent categories.
 To guide users to find the desired topic (and its linked content of
pages or documents)
 Similar to navigation and site maps, but more topical and not just
based on page titles
2. A controlled vocabulary of metadata tags/labels to apply to pages, posts,
or documents, so that they can be more precisely and comprehensively
retrieved (than by search algorithms alone on keywords in text).
 Implemented as search suggestion terms, search refinement
filters, or related topics and searches
Which approach is most relevant to you? Complete the Zoom poll.
Introduction to Taxonomies
4
© 2020 Heather Hedden
5
© 2020 Heather Hedden
Craigslist Boston
boston.craigslist.org
6
© 2020 Heather Hedden
World Bank
https://data.worldbank.org
What is a taxonomy?
Controlled and organized
 A kind of controlled vocabulary or knowledge organization system,
based on unambiguous concepts, not just words
 Concepts/terms are arranged in a structure of hierarchies, categories, or
facets to organize the terms.
Why called “taxonomy”?
 From ancient Greek "taxis,” meaning arrangement + "nomia,” meaning
method.
 Originally meant the science and practice of naming and classifying.
 Aspect of "classification" is still relevant to the definition of taxonomies.
Introduction to Taxonomies
7
© 2020 Heather Hedden
8
350 Public administration & military science 360
Social problems & social services
370 Education
380 Commerce, communications & transportation
390 Customs, etiquette & folklore
400 Language
410 Linguistics
420 English & Old English languages
430 German & related languages
440 French & related languages
450 Italian, Romanian & related languages
460 Spanish & Portuguese languages
470 Latin & Italic languages
480 Classical & modern Greek languages
490 Other languages
500 Science
510 Mathematics
520 Astronomy
530 Physics
540 Chemistry
550 Earth sciences & geology
560 Fossils & prehistoric life
570 Life sciences; biology
580 Plants (Botany)
590 Animals (Zoology)
600 Technology
610 Medicine & health
620 Engineering
630 Agriculture
640 Home & family management
650 Management & public relations
660 Chemical engineering
670 Manufacturing
680 Manufacture for specific uses
690 Building & construction
700 Arts
710 Landscaping & area planning
720 Architecture
730 Sculpture, ceramics & metalwork
740 Drawing & decorative arts
750 Painting
760 Graphic arts
770 Photography & computer art
780 Music
790 Sports, games & entertainment
800 Literature, rhetoric & criticism
810 American literature in English
820 English & Old English literatures
830 German & related literatures
840 French & related literatures
850 Italian, Romanian & related literatures
860 Spanish & Portuguese literatures
870 Latin & Italic literatures
880 Classical & modern Greek literatures
890 Other literatures
900 History
910 Geography & travel
920 Biography & genealogy
930 History of ancient world (to ca. 499)
940 History of Europe
950 History of Asia
960 History of Africa
970 History of North America
980 History of South America
990 History of other areas
000 Computer science, knowledge & systems
010 Bibliographies
020 Library & information sciences
030 Encyclopedias & books of facts
040 [Unassigned]
050 Magazines, journals & serials
060 Associations, organizations & museums
070 News media, journalism & publishing
080 Quotations
090 Manuscripts & rare books
100 Philosophy
110 Metaphysics
120 Epistemology
130 Parapsychology & occultism
140 Philosophical schools of thought
150 Psychology
160 Logic
170 Ethics
180 Ancient, medieval & eastern philosophy
190 Modern western philosophy
200 Religion
210 Philosophy & theory of religion
220 The Bible
230 Christianity & Christian theology
240 Christian practice & observance
250 Christian pastoral practice & religious orders
260 Christian organization, social work & worship
270 History of Christianity
280 Christian denominations
290 Other religions
300 Social sciences, sociology & anthropology
310 Statistics
320 Political science
330 Economics
340 Law
Dewey Decimal
Classification
100s level
Is a classification
system a
taxonomy?
Not really.
Introduction to Taxonomies
9
Taxonomy vs. a Classification System
Classification systems: LC Classification, Dewey Decimal Classification, NAICS, etc.
Classification Systems Taxonomies
 Have codes
 Don’t have synonyms (alternate labels)
 Comprehensive and balanced coverage
of a domain
 Designed to be browsed hierarchically,
top-down
 Built for a domain but independent of
specific content
 Allows for limited expansion
 Has categories for “not elsewhere
classified” or “other”
 Don’t have codes
 Often have synonyms (alternate labels)
 Just the concepts needed and may be
hierarchically unbalanced
 Designed to be browsed, searched, or may
not be fully displayed to end-users
 Custom-built to include the topics in the
content to be tagged
 Can grow and adapt without limits
 Do not have concepts for the miscellaneous
© 2020 Heather Hedden
© 2020 Heather Hedden
Benefits of taxonomies/controlled vocabularies
1. Controlled vocabulary
Brings together different wordings (synonyms) for the same concept
 Helps people search for information by different names
2. Classification and structure
Organizes information into a logical structure
 Helps people browse or navigate for information
 Provides context and meaning for concepts, to support indexing and
retrieval
Benefits and Uses
10
© 2020 Heather Hedden
Benefits and Uses
11
© 2020 Hedden Information Management
Synonym Control
As a controlled vocabulary…
A search restricted on the controlled vocabulary retrieves concepts not just
words.
 Documents excluded for mere text-string matches
(e.g. monitors for computers, not the verb “observes”)
 Improves accuracy and precision in retrieving information
Gathers synonyms, acronyms, variant spellings, etc.
 Documents not missed due to use of different words
(e.g. Automobiles, instead of Cars)
 Improves comprehensive recall of information
© 2020 Heather Hedden
Benefits and Uses
12
Text may contain:
Oil and gas industry
Oil companies
Big oil
Oil producers
Oil industry
Oil & gas industry
Oil and gas industry
Oil & gas industries
Oil and gas industries
Petroleum industry
Oil companies
Big oil
Oil producers
Petroleum companies
Users may enter:
Oil industry
Oil & gas industry
Oil & gas industries
Petroleum industry
Controlled Vocabulary
contains all synonyms:
Applications and uses
1. Indexing support
a) Manual indexing
b) Automated indexing
2. Findability or retrieval support
a) In browsing
b) In searching
c) In faceted search-browse
Benefits and Uses
13
© 2020 Heather Hedden
Indexing Support
As a structured list of agreed-upon terms to ensure consistent indexing
 Across multiple documents or content items, where different synonyms
describe the same concepts
 By multiple indexers working on the same collection
 By machine-aided indexing / autoclassification, where taxonomy terms
have rules, clues, or sample tuned documents
Benefits and Uses
14
© 2020 Heather Hedden
Indexing Support
Benefits and Uses
15
Manual indexing
example
Cengage/Gale
Subject Thesaurus
Internal indexer
alphabetical browse
view
© 2020 Heather Hedden
Retrieval support: in browse
Alphabetical browse
Display method for thesauri, name/proper noun lists, and book-style indexes
Example of an alphabetical browse thesaurus:
ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center) Thesaurus
Institute of Education Sciences
https://eric.ed.gov/?ti=all
Benefits and Uses
16
© 2020 Heather Hedden
17
Terms in italics are
variants/alternative labels
redirecting to the
preferred label of the
concept.
© 2020 Heather Hedden
Retrieval
Support
Benefits and Uses
18
Hierarchical browse
taxonomy
 Categorization scheme for
information organization,
classification, guided
search
 More often for end-users
guidance than for indexers
Example:
Craigslist Boston
https://boston.craigslist.org
Benefits and Uses
19
Hierarchy purposes
1. Serving users who are browsing, exploring, discovering, not searching, to whom
the hierarchy is displayed.
 Users don’t even have to know the first word or few letters, as in search or
alphabetical browsing.
2. Instructing users on appropriate classification
3. Providing context to terms for manual indexers/taggers so that they apply the
correct term.
4. Providing the context of a broader concept and thus meaning to aid in auto-
classification.
5. Enabling “recursive”/“rolled up” retrieval results (A term retrieves what is indexed
to it and what is indexed to each on of its narrower terms, all together.)
© 2020 Heather Hedden
© 2020 Heather Hedden
Retrieval support: in search
Benefits and Uses
20
Type-ahead Search-suggest
© 2020 Heather Hedden
Benefits and Uses
21
Retrieval support: in faceted search-browse
 Ensures comprehensive tagging and comprehensive
search/retrieval by multiple different aspects/vocabulary
types.
 Supports filtering search results by different
aspects/vocabulary types.
 Supports more complex search queries by users.
 Allows users to control the search refinement, narrowing
or broadening in any manner or order.
 Provides guided Boolean “AND” searching upon a
combination of terms in different facets.
© 2020 Hedden Information Management
Purposes and uses of controlled vocabularies
 Consistent tagging/indexing
 Topic/category browsing
 Search (matching search strings to concepts)
 Discovery (related concept links or contents sharing the same concepts)
 Filtering results
 Sorting results
 Content management workflow (rights, audience, retention, etc.)
 Consistent metadata for identification, comparison, analysis
 Visualization of topics (importance and/or relations)
 Curated content in feeds or info boxes.
 Automatic linking of relevant topics for personalization or recommendation
systems.
Benefits and Uses
22
Heather Hedden
Data & Knowledge Engineer
Semantic Web Company, Inc.
Boston, MA
www.semantic-web.com
www.poolparty.biz
heather.hedden@semantic-web.com
www.hedden-information.com
accidental-taxonomist.blogspot.com
heather@hedden.net
Questions/Contact
23
© 2020 Heather Hedden

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Benefits of Taxonomies

  • 1. Benefits of Taxonomies For content, information, and knowledge management February 2021 Heather Hedden Excerpted from the Taxonomy 101 workshop of KMWorld Connect conference, November 12, 2020
  • 2.  Knowledge and data engineer, Semantic Web Company  Instructor of online, virtual, and onsite taxonomy courses and workshops. Hedden Information Management  Former consultant; former staff taxonomist at Gale/Cengage Learning, Viziant, First Wind  Author of The Accidental Taxonomist (2010, 2016, Information Today, Inc.) About Heather Hedden 2 © 2020 Heather Hedden
  • 3. What is a taxonomy for?  Terms/concepts are used to tag/index/categorize content to make it easier to be found and retrieved  supporting better findability than search alone  The taxonomy is an intermediary that links the user to the desired content.  The taxonomy should suit the content and the users. Introduction to Taxonomies 3 Users Content Taxonomy © 2020 Heather Hedden
  • 4. Two main approaches to taxonomies 1. A hierarchy of terms/concepts/topics/categories arranged with narrower topics/subcategories displayed under their broader/parent categories.  To guide users to find the desired topic (and its linked content of pages or documents)  Similar to navigation and site maps, but more topical and not just based on page titles 2. A controlled vocabulary of metadata tags/labels to apply to pages, posts, or documents, so that they can be more precisely and comprehensively retrieved (than by search algorithms alone on keywords in text).  Implemented as search suggestion terms, search refinement filters, or related topics and searches Which approach is most relevant to you? Complete the Zoom poll. Introduction to Taxonomies 4 © 2020 Heather Hedden
  • 5. 5 © 2020 Heather Hedden Craigslist Boston boston.craigslist.org
  • 6. 6 © 2020 Heather Hedden World Bank https://data.worldbank.org
  • 7. What is a taxonomy? Controlled and organized  A kind of controlled vocabulary or knowledge organization system, based on unambiguous concepts, not just words  Concepts/terms are arranged in a structure of hierarchies, categories, or facets to organize the terms. Why called “taxonomy”?  From ancient Greek "taxis,” meaning arrangement + "nomia,” meaning method.  Originally meant the science and practice of naming and classifying.  Aspect of "classification" is still relevant to the definition of taxonomies. Introduction to Taxonomies 7 © 2020 Heather Hedden
  • 8. 8 350 Public administration & military science 360 Social problems & social services 370 Education 380 Commerce, communications & transportation 390 Customs, etiquette & folklore 400 Language 410 Linguistics 420 English & Old English languages 430 German & related languages 440 French & related languages 450 Italian, Romanian & related languages 460 Spanish & Portuguese languages 470 Latin & Italic languages 480 Classical & modern Greek languages 490 Other languages 500 Science 510 Mathematics 520 Astronomy 530 Physics 540 Chemistry 550 Earth sciences & geology 560 Fossils & prehistoric life 570 Life sciences; biology 580 Plants (Botany) 590 Animals (Zoology) 600 Technology 610 Medicine & health 620 Engineering 630 Agriculture 640 Home & family management 650 Management & public relations 660 Chemical engineering 670 Manufacturing 680 Manufacture for specific uses 690 Building & construction 700 Arts 710 Landscaping & area planning 720 Architecture 730 Sculpture, ceramics & metalwork 740 Drawing & decorative arts 750 Painting 760 Graphic arts 770 Photography & computer art 780 Music 790 Sports, games & entertainment 800 Literature, rhetoric & criticism 810 American literature in English 820 English & Old English literatures 830 German & related literatures 840 French & related literatures 850 Italian, Romanian & related literatures 860 Spanish & Portuguese literatures 870 Latin & Italic literatures 880 Classical & modern Greek literatures 890 Other literatures 900 History 910 Geography & travel 920 Biography & genealogy 930 History of ancient world (to ca. 499) 940 History of Europe 950 History of Asia 960 History of Africa 970 History of North America 980 History of South America 990 History of other areas 000 Computer science, knowledge & systems 010 Bibliographies 020 Library & information sciences 030 Encyclopedias & books of facts 040 [Unassigned] 050 Magazines, journals & serials 060 Associations, organizations & museums 070 News media, journalism & publishing 080 Quotations 090 Manuscripts & rare books 100 Philosophy 110 Metaphysics 120 Epistemology 130 Parapsychology & occultism 140 Philosophical schools of thought 150 Psychology 160 Logic 170 Ethics 180 Ancient, medieval & eastern philosophy 190 Modern western philosophy 200 Religion 210 Philosophy & theory of religion 220 The Bible 230 Christianity & Christian theology 240 Christian practice & observance 250 Christian pastoral practice & religious orders 260 Christian organization, social work & worship 270 History of Christianity 280 Christian denominations 290 Other religions 300 Social sciences, sociology & anthropology 310 Statistics 320 Political science 330 Economics 340 Law Dewey Decimal Classification 100s level Is a classification system a taxonomy? Not really.
  • 9. Introduction to Taxonomies 9 Taxonomy vs. a Classification System Classification systems: LC Classification, Dewey Decimal Classification, NAICS, etc. Classification Systems Taxonomies  Have codes  Don’t have synonyms (alternate labels)  Comprehensive and balanced coverage of a domain  Designed to be browsed hierarchically, top-down  Built for a domain but independent of specific content  Allows for limited expansion  Has categories for “not elsewhere classified” or “other”  Don’t have codes  Often have synonyms (alternate labels)  Just the concepts needed and may be hierarchically unbalanced  Designed to be browsed, searched, or may not be fully displayed to end-users  Custom-built to include the topics in the content to be tagged  Can grow and adapt without limits  Do not have concepts for the miscellaneous © 2020 Heather Hedden
  • 10. © 2020 Heather Hedden Benefits of taxonomies/controlled vocabularies 1. Controlled vocabulary Brings together different wordings (synonyms) for the same concept  Helps people search for information by different names 2. Classification and structure Organizes information into a logical structure  Helps people browse or navigate for information  Provides context and meaning for concepts, to support indexing and retrieval Benefits and Uses 10
  • 11. © 2020 Heather Hedden Benefits and Uses 11 © 2020 Hedden Information Management Synonym Control As a controlled vocabulary… A search restricted on the controlled vocabulary retrieves concepts not just words.  Documents excluded for mere text-string matches (e.g. monitors for computers, not the verb “observes”)  Improves accuracy and precision in retrieving information Gathers synonyms, acronyms, variant spellings, etc.  Documents not missed due to use of different words (e.g. Automobiles, instead of Cars)  Improves comprehensive recall of information
  • 12. © 2020 Heather Hedden Benefits and Uses 12 Text may contain: Oil and gas industry Oil companies Big oil Oil producers Oil industry Oil & gas industry Oil and gas industry Oil & gas industries Oil and gas industries Petroleum industry Oil companies Big oil Oil producers Petroleum companies Users may enter: Oil industry Oil & gas industry Oil & gas industries Petroleum industry Controlled Vocabulary contains all synonyms:
  • 13. Applications and uses 1. Indexing support a) Manual indexing b) Automated indexing 2. Findability or retrieval support a) In browsing b) In searching c) In faceted search-browse Benefits and Uses 13 © 2020 Heather Hedden
  • 14. Indexing Support As a structured list of agreed-upon terms to ensure consistent indexing  Across multiple documents or content items, where different synonyms describe the same concepts  By multiple indexers working on the same collection  By machine-aided indexing / autoclassification, where taxonomy terms have rules, clues, or sample tuned documents Benefits and Uses 14 © 2020 Heather Hedden
  • 15. Indexing Support Benefits and Uses 15 Manual indexing example Cengage/Gale Subject Thesaurus Internal indexer alphabetical browse view
  • 16. © 2020 Heather Hedden Retrieval support: in browse Alphabetical browse Display method for thesauri, name/proper noun lists, and book-style indexes Example of an alphabetical browse thesaurus: ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center) Thesaurus Institute of Education Sciences https://eric.ed.gov/?ti=all Benefits and Uses 16
  • 17. © 2020 Heather Hedden 17 Terms in italics are variants/alternative labels redirecting to the preferred label of the concept.
  • 18. © 2020 Heather Hedden Retrieval Support Benefits and Uses 18 Hierarchical browse taxonomy  Categorization scheme for information organization, classification, guided search  More often for end-users guidance than for indexers Example: Craigslist Boston https://boston.craigslist.org
  • 19. Benefits and Uses 19 Hierarchy purposes 1. Serving users who are browsing, exploring, discovering, not searching, to whom the hierarchy is displayed.  Users don’t even have to know the first word or few letters, as in search or alphabetical browsing. 2. Instructing users on appropriate classification 3. Providing context to terms for manual indexers/taggers so that they apply the correct term. 4. Providing the context of a broader concept and thus meaning to aid in auto- classification. 5. Enabling “recursive”/“rolled up” retrieval results (A term retrieves what is indexed to it and what is indexed to each on of its narrower terms, all together.) © 2020 Heather Hedden
  • 20. © 2020 Heather Hedden Retrieval support: in search Benefits and Uses 20 Type-ahead Search-suggest
  • 21. © 2020 Heather Hedden Benefits and Uses 21 Retrieval support: in faceted search-browse  Ensures comprehensive tagging and comprehensive search/retrieval by multiple different aspects/vocabulary types.  Supports filtering search results by different aspects/vocabulary types.  Supports more complex search queries by users.  Allows users to control the search refinement, narrowing or broadening in any manner or order.  Provides guided Boolean “AND” searching upon a combination of terms in different facets. © 2020 Hedden Information Management
  • 22. Purposes and uses of controlled vocabularies  Consistent tagging/indexing  Topic/category browsing  Search (matching search strings to concepts)  Discovery (related concept links or contents sharing the same concepts)  Filtering results  Sorting results  Content management workflow (rights, audience, retention, etc.)  Consistent metadata for identification, comparison, analysis  Visualization of topics (importance and/or relations)  Curated content in feeds or info boxes.  Automatic linking of relevant topics for personalization or recommendation systems. Benefits and Uses 22
  • 23. Heather Hedden Data & Knowledge Engineer Semantic Web Company, Inc. Boston, MA www.semantic-web.com www.poolparty.biz heather.hedden@semantic-web.com www.hedden-information.com accidental-taxonomist.blogspot.com heather@hedden.net Questions/Contact 23 © 2020 Heather Hedden

Editor's Notes

  1. Which approach have you had to taxonomies (if any)? Show of hands
  2. Although taxonomies have a classification aspect, they are not classification systems. Taxonomy can be and usually are more user-focused than classification systems. Taxonomies comprise concepts not categories, hence there can be no concept of miscellaneous.