Presentation delivered by Annie Cook from ILRI, during the LSE seminar series on 26 March 2015

1. Wildlife-livestock-human interface
Can we recognise drivers of disease?
Annie Cook
Post doctoral Scientist - Epidemiology
Event: LSE Seminar
Location: ILRI Infocentre
Date: 26Th March, 2015

2. Outline
• Global context
– Wildlife-livestock-human interface
– Endemic versus emerging infectious disease
– Can we predict next pandemic?
• Kenyan case studies
– Zoonoses in small holders and their animals
– Bats as source of emerging disease
– Malignant catarrhal fever

3. Wildlife-livestock-human interface

4. Drivers of disease
• Climate change
• Environmental degradation
• Encroachment wild spaces
• Globalisation
• Urbanisation
• Land use changes
• Agricultural intensification

5. Endemic versus emerging
Endemic disease Global infections per year
Brucellosis 500,0001
Leptospirosis 1,725,0902
Emerging disease Total infections
Nipah ~6003,4
Avian influenza (H5N1) 7845
1. Pappas et al 2006
2. Hagan et al 2014
3. http://www.searo.who.int/entity/emerging_diseases/links/CDS_Nipah_Virus.pdf
4. http://www.searo.who.int/entity/emerging_diseases/links/nipah_virus_outbreaks_sear/en/
5.http://www.who.int/influenza/human_animal_interface/EN_GIP_20150303cumulativeNumberH5N1cases.pd
f?ua=1

6. Impact of emerging disease
• Loss of human life
• Costs of control
• Adverse effects on
agriculture & food
security
• Reduces biodiversity
http://www2.cedarcrest.edu/academic/bio/hale/
bioT_EID/lectures/session24.html

7. The next emerging disease?
• RNA virus
• Broad host range
• Wildlife source
• Developing world
• Human to human
transmission
Taylor et al 2001
Woolhouse et al 2005

8. Predictions of emerging disease
Jones et al 2008
Swine flu,
Mexico MERS,
Saudi Arabia

9. Kenyan case studies
https://unphase1-6th-8th.wikispaces.com/Kenya

10. Kenyan context
• 44 million people
• Rural
• 17M Cattle, 27M Goats, 17M Sheep , 0.3M
pigs, 3M camels
• 60% wildlife outside national parks
• Encroachment of wildlife areas
• Wildlife-human conflict
• Disease transmission
Kenyan Human Population Census 2009

11. People, Animals and their
Zoonoses (PAZ)
• Cross-sectional study on zoonoses
• 412 households
• 142 slaughterhouses
• Endemic disease
– HIV, malaria
• Zoonoses
– Brucellosis, leptospirosis,
Rift Valley fever, Q fever,
cysticercosis, taeniasis

12. PAZ study area
• Western Kenya
• Lake Victoria Crescent
• Population 1.4M
• High population density
• Mixed agriculture
• Small holdings

13. Comparison to other areas
Western (%) Kajiado (%) Tana River (%)
Human
Brucellosis 0.61 1.32
Q fever 2.21 26.84
Leptospirosis 4.81
Cattle
Brucellosis 0.261 21.92
Q fever 10.01
Leptospirosis 5.31 21.03
1 Fèvre et al 2015
2 Nakeel et al 2015
3 Nakeel et al 2015
4 Mwololo et al 2015

14. High risk groups
Community (%) Slaughterhouse
workers (%)
Human
Brucellosis 0.6 0.6
Q fever 2.2 4.5
Leptospirosis 4.8 13.4

15. Conclusions
• Differences in seroprevalence
• Livestock system?
• High risk groups
• Next steps
– Zoolink Project
– Zoonoses and Emerging Livestock Systems

16. Bats as source of emerging disease
• Worldwide distribution
• Incredibly numerous
• Colonies
• Reservoirs of emerging
disease
– SARS, Nipah

17. Nipah virus
• Malaysia
• Commercial pig farms
• Bat- pig - human
• Bangladesh
• Date palm sap
http://whyfiles.org/2013/dangerous-viruses-new-
weapons-against-new-foes/Epstein et al, 2015

18. Bat sampling
• Mist nets
• Transferred to laboratory
• Anaesthetised – isofluorane
• Sample collection
• Euthanised
• Necropsy

19. Sample analysis
• Blood
• Frozen tissues – heart, lung, liver, kidney, brain,
spleen
• Fixed tissues for histopathology
• PCR
– Lyssaviruses (Rabies)
– Filoviruses (Ebola/Marburg)
– Coronaviruses (SARS – like)
– Paramyxoviruses (Henipah)
– Bunyaviruses (Hanta)

20. Results – so far
5/8 Epomophorus sp
http://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/malaria/index.htm

21. Conclusions
• New pathogens of bats
• Relate to human and animal data
• Not causal but hypothesis generating

22. Malignant catarrhal fever
http://na.unep.net/geas/getUNEPPage
WithArticleIDScript.php?article_id=107
• Alcelaphine herpesvirus -1
• Carriers – wildebeest
• 100% cattle mortality
• Risk period - wildebeest calving
• Traditionally pastoralists migrate

23. Kapiti Plains
https://fonnap.wordpress.com/2012/03/05/the-konza-techno-city-malili-animal-rescue/

24. Kapiti
• 33000 acres
• 2000-2500 cattle
• 2000 wildebeest
• 2014 – 221 cattle deaths
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Series1Cases

25. Control
• Fencing
• Removal wildebeest
• Exclusion
• Vaccine trial
– attenuated live virus (AlHV C500) + Emulsigen® 1,2
– Randomised placebo blind trial (100)
1 Russell et al 2012
2 Haig et al 2008

26. Conclusion
• Drivers are anthropogenic
• Increased contact with animals
• How do we quantify/qualify that contact
• How do we determine which behaviours
• Are the pathogens one step ahead?

27. Acknowledgements

28. References
Epstein, J.H. et al The Ecology of Nipah Virus in its Natural Reservoir, Pteropus giganteus, in Bangladesh. One Health Congress
2015, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Fèvre, E.M. et al An integrated study of human and animal infectious disease in the Lake Victoria Crescent small-holder crop-
livestock production system. In prep 2015
Hagan, J.E. et al Global burden of disease due to leptospirosis: Systematic review of disease-specific mortality and morbidity ASH,
Dec 2011, Philadelphia, USA
Haig, D.M. et al An immunisation strategy for the protection of cattle against alcelaphine herpesvirus-1-induced malignant
catarrhal fever. Vaccine 2008. 25:35; 4461-8
Jones K, Patel G, Levy M, et al. Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature 2008. 451:21; 990-994
Mwololo , D.K. et al Seroprevalence and risk factors of Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) infection among humans in Bura irrigation
scheme, Tana River County, Kenya, One Health Congress 2015, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Nakeel, M.J. et al Seroprevalence of brucellosis in livestock and humans and the associated risk factors in Kajiado county, Kenya,
Regional Conference on Zoonotic Disease sin Eastern Africa, March 9-13 2015, Naivasha, Kenya
Nakeel, M.J. et al Seroprevalence of leptospirosis in cattle and its associated risk factors in Kajiado County, Kenya, Regional
Conference on Zoonotic Diseases in Eastern Africa, March 9-13 2015, Naivasha, Kenya
Pappas G, Papadimitriou P, Akritidis N, Christou L, Tsianos EV The new global map of human brucellosis. Lancet Infect
Dis 2006;6:91–9
Russell , G.C. et al Duration of protective immunity and antibody responses in cattle immunised against alcelaphine herpesvirus-1-
induced malignant catarrhal fever. Veterinary Research 2012. 42:1; 51
Taylor, L.H. et al Host Range and Emerging and Reemerging Pathogens Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 2001. 356:1411; 983-9
Woolhouse, M.E.J. et al Host Range and Emerging and Reemerging Pathogens. Emerging Infectious Diseases 2005, 11:12; 1843-7