This is a report based on research conducted in 1994. The study measures risk and protective factors associated with prison inmates, primarily during their adolescence. Results show that that discussing personal problems during adolescence is a powerful protective factor when practiced, and a dangerous risk when it is not. This insight could potentially guide social policies and programs in new directions. The findings support the idea that the combination of emotional inexpressiveness and pro-violence beliefs are associated with the development of violent behaviors.

1. A Survey of Minnesota Prison Inmates
First published in 1994
Jane F. Gilgun
Kay Pranis
Richard C. Ericson
This study identified risk and protective factors in the lives of Minnesota prison inmates
during their teenage years. Compared to non-inmate samples, prison inmates were far less likely to talk to
others about their problems and find that it helped, but they did not differ from non-inmates in believing that
their parents loved them. We outline strategies for prevention. At the end of this document is a reading list of
articles that the first author wrote during the 15 years since she was the principal investigator of this study.
About the Authors
Jane F. Gilgun, Ph.D., LICSW, is a professor, School of Social Work, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities,
USA. See Professor Gilgun’s related articles, children’s stories, and books on Amazon Kindle,
scribd.com/professorjane, and stores.lulu.com/jgilgun. In 1994, when this research took place, Jane Gilgun
was the principal investigator, Kay Pranis was director of research, Minnesota Council on Crime and Justice,
Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, and Richard C. Ericson was president of the Minnesota Council on Crime
and Justice. The Minnesota State Legislature funded this study.
2

2. Two Boys, Similar Backgrounds:
One Goes to Prison and one Does Not: Why?
P
icture two boys growing up in the same neighborhood. Both are 10, live in middle‐class
neighborhoods, are intelligent, and witnessed their fathers beating their mothers. Their fathers
beat both of them. Both experienced sexual abuse. The person who sexually abused Rob was his
father. The person who sexually abused Marty was an older kid in the neighborhood.
One will grow into responsible adulthood: optimistic, a loving husband and father, and a dependable
employee. The other will become a prison inmate.
What creates the difference in these two lives?
Rob: Trust in Others
Rob confided in a friend named Pete when his father beat him and when he had worries about school,
friendships, and money. He learned from Pete’s father how to fix electronic equipment. He tried to be
like his friend’s father. He liked school and enjoyed playing with other kids at school and in the
neighborhood
As Rob grew older, his circle of friends widened. He developed hopes and dreams for the future. He
kept a diary where he recorded secret stuff about his troubles in his family, his feelings for girls, and
how his day went. He got drunk at a party when he was 16 and didn’t like the feeling of being out of
control. After that he drank only occasionally, and not too much.
As a young adult, Rob sought professional help for his feelings of anger, sadness, and frustration about
the abuse he experienced as a child.
Marty: Broken Trust
Marty, at the age of eight, confided in a teacher that his father beat him. He also wanted to tell the
teacher about the older boy in the neighborhood who sexually abused him, but he thought he would
wait to see how the teacher handled the news of his physical abuse. The teacher called his father, who
said he had never beaten Marty. When Marty got home from school, his father beat him for telling the
teacher.
Marty never confided in anyone again. Instead, he tried to be tough, like men he saw in video games
and on TV. They didn’t feel hurt or helpless. They took what they wanted. They were in charge.
By the age of 10, Marty was stealing from stores and harassing other children, physically and sexually.
He was doing poorly in school At 11, he joined a group who stole and sometimes attacked others,
vandalized property, and used alcohol and drugs. Marty told himself he was having fun.
At 14, Marty was in a juvenile correctional center. Five years later, he was convicted and sentenced to
12 years in prison for criminal sexual conduct.
3

3. Similar Risks, Different Outcomes
As children, Rob and Marty were both at risk for committing violent acts. One had on‐going
relationships with people he trusted and in whom he confided personal, sensitive information. Doing
so helped him feel better. Positive experiences and relationships were protective factors.
Marty had some protective factors, but a pile‐up of risk factors overwhelmed them. His life might have
been far different had there been early and effective responses to his report of physical abuse at home.
Resilience
Many people have risks for outcomes like Marty’s, but most people with these risks turn out like Rob
because they have many positive factors in their lives that they use to help them work through the
effects of these risks.
Such people are resilient, meaning they have learned to cope with, adapt to, or overcome risks,
because they use the positive things in their lives. Rob, for instance, trusted Pete and Pet’s family. He
gained a sense of self‐worth through his close relationships with them.
He never sexually abused anyone, and at a party when he was a teen, he stopped another boy from
raping a girl who had had too much to drink. “He might have put something in her drink,” Rob said.
Other people are not resilient. In Marty’s case, he made a decision early in life never to trust anyone
else. He was far too young to understand the consequences of his decision.
When we look at the numbers of children who are hurt and afraid, what can each of us do to help these
children build the trust required to begin to deal with the difficult events in their lives?
Bridge­Building
Only trained professionals can provide hurt children with the extensive help they require, but people
can become bridges for hurt children, bridges that lead to safe and secure relationships with
competent professionals who can help children deal with the harsh realities in their lives.
In the best of all worlds, the children’s parents will walk with their children across that bridge to
professional help. When parents cannot do this, then their children will have a tougher time, but they
may be lucky as Rob was and find a network of people who will care about them and stick with them
over the long term.
The Present Study
This study identified risk and protective factors in the lives of Minnesota prison inmates during
their adolescence. We compared the inmates on key risk and protections with three other groups: 1) a
sample of 800 randomly chosen Minnesota adults, 2) a sample of adolescent offenders, and 3) a
sample of 36,000 Minnesota adolescents from the general population. These comparisons helped us
seem more clearly what distinguishes inmates from persons who are not inmates.
Social policy and preventive programming can be built upon the principles of increasing
protections and decreasing risks.
4

4. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This report is made possible by funding authorized by the Minnesota State Legislature to assess
experiential and environmental factors in the lives of Minnesota inmates. Senators Ellen Anderson
and Jane Ranum were the authors of the legislation and the project’s leading advocates.
The Department of Corrections was commissioned to administer the study. The Department’s
cooperation and counsel made possible an extensive survey of Minnesota prison inmates which
provides the central data base for this study.
United Way of Minneapolis Area, the University of Minnesota, and Norwest Corporation contributed
significant resources that made it possible to incorporate additional research and evaluation required
for this report.
The study and preparation of the report were directed by the Minnesota Citizens Council on Crime and
Justice in collaboration with the University of Minnesota School of Social Work and the National
Adolescent Health Resource Center, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities..
The authors are grateful to members of the Project Advisory Group, who contributed hours of
consultation on the construction of the inmate survey and the interpretation of results. The Group
represents many sectors of the community.
A special thanks to Randy Speer for his contributions to the design and presentation of this document.
Jane F. Gilgun, Ph.D., LICSW
Associate Professor, School of Social Work
University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, USA
Kay Pranis
Restorative Justice Planner
Minnesota Department of Corrections
(formerly Director of Research, Citizens Council)
Richard C. Ericson
President
Citizens Council
5

5.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
RISKS AND PROTECTIONS........................................................................................................................................................ 1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY................................................................................................................................................................ 6
THEORY AND DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES ...................................................................................................................... 8
FINDINGS AND IDEAS FOR ACTION ..................................................................................................................................... 9
LIMITATIONS ................................................................................................................................................................................ 23
FURTHER READING................................................................................................................................................................... 24
6

6.
A Survey of Minnesota Prison Inmates
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This study measures risk and protective factors What seems clear is that their many risks
associated with prison inmates, primarily during overwhelmed whatever protective factors were
their adolescence. present.
The data on risk and protection factors of inmates We can learn from the lives of these inmates. Risk
was compared with similar data on two non-inmate factors such as poverty, abuse, the absence of
samples and one sample of incarcerated juveniles. fathers and out-of-home placement were reported
It was found that both protective factors and risk by a large portion of inmates. This suggests that
factors distinguish inmates from non-inmates. The the effective steps to reduce crime must emphasize
data indicate that most inmates had more risks and preventative measures during childhood.
fewer protective factors than the non-inmates
representing the general population. Inmates’ The data show, for instance, that discussing
protections were overwhelmed by risks. personal problems during adolescence is a powerful
protective factor when practiced, and a dangerous
These findings support widely assumed risk when it is not. This insight could potentially
relationships between adult criminal behavior and guide social policies and programs in new
the experiences and circumstances of childhood directions.
and adolescence.
The findings of this study do not excuse antisocial
Inmates were not without positive forces in their behavior, nor is it unreasonable to hold people
early years. For example, most inmates reported accountable for their choices. They do suggest,
feeling that their parents cared for them, and did however, that the efficient use of public funds in
not differ significantly from non-inmates in this reducing crime is investment at the “front end” – an
regard. Yet, feeling cared for was not enough. investment in Minnesota’s children.
7

7. THEORY AND DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLES
Protective factors can shield individuals from • Racism and discrimination resulting in
poor development outcomes. Persons who have diminished opportunities for education and
these factors in their lives are likely to overcome jobs.
substantial risks. The following examples of
protective factors have been identified by long term We developed the survey to measure risk and
studies following children into young adulthood. protective factors experienced by inmates during
adolescence. In order to compare inmates’
• Being respected and accepted within experience with a non-inmate population, we took
families and other social institutions such as questions from the Adolescent Health Survey
neighborhoods, communities, schools, developed by the Adolescent Health Resource
religious organizations, libraries, and Center and included them in the inmate survey. In
playgrounds January 1994, we distributed printed questionnaires
to the total state prison population of about 4000
• Close, on-going relationships with others inmates.
who model pro-social behaviors and values
and who are confidants and who encourage This study is based on responses from 1700 prison
emotional expressiveness inmates, about 1600 men and 100 women.
Focusing on the experiences of inmates during
• Opportunities for education and jobs adolescence allowed for comparisons of inmates
with two other groups. These groups 36,000
• Witnessing family members and others with Minnesota public school students in grades 7-12
whom we identify as being treated with who took the Adolescent Health Survey in 1987
respect and acceptance and as having and 540 juveniles in Minnesota detention and
economic and educational opportunities correctional facilities who were surveyed in 1991.
Risk factors are associated with poor To assess whether the inmates’ recollections of
developmental outcomes when individuals have childhood and adolescent experiences were
few or ineffective protective factors. Poor reliable, inmates were further compared to a sample
developmental outcomes include committing of 800 randomly selected Minnesota adults. Key
crimes and acting in violent ways. The following questions on risks and protections were included in
are examples of risk factors. Again, these this survey conducted by telephone in 1993 by the
examples have been identified by previous Minnesota Center for Survey Research.
longitudinal studies.
Three comparison groups were thus used in this
• Adults and peers in families and study to identify the differences between Minnesota
neighborhoods who model disrespect for prison inmates and other Minnesota citizens.
and violence against other
We expected that the experiences of inmates would
• Few if any close relationships that model differ from the sample of Minnesota adults and the
pro-social behaviors and values public school students. Groups that had similar
outcomes, the inmates and the incarcerated
• Childhood abuse and neglect juveniles, were expected to have had similar
experiences during adolescence.
• Poverty
• diminished opportunities for education and
education
8

8. 9

9. Findings and Ideas for Action
For each of the findings, the substantiating data is provided. Also shown are Ideas for Action, offered for
consideration in planning policies and developing programs that are designed to enhance protective factors
and ameliorate risks.
Finding 1: Inmates and Students Felt Cared About by At Least One Parent During Adolescence
Chart 1: Felt Cared About by At Least One Parent
Inmates, Students, and Adults
90% 90%
89%
88%
85%
82%
Male Inmates Female Inmates Male Adults Female Adults Male Students Female Students
High percentage of inmates, students and randomly selected Minnesota adults reported feeling cared about
by their parents.
IDEAS FOR ACTION
• Use what young people say about caring by • Although most inmates felt cared for by
their parents and others to help develop parents, many also were maltreated by
further programming. Program developers parents and most did not discuss problems
could discover key strategies through with their parents. These three conditions
conversations with youth. are contradictory. Making sense of such
• Policy planners and program developers contradictory conditions is impossible
could take some time to talk to each other without help from others. Our young
about what caring is and how caring might people need help from caring adults in
be incorporated into policy and programs. coping with these incongruencies.
Ideas such as attachment, inclusion, a sense
of belonging, helping each other learn new
skills and learning to cope with people who
seem not to care might provide some
direction in building on a wish to feel cared
about.
10

10. Finding 2: More Inmates Did Not Want to Discuss Problems in Adolescence, and Fewer Inmates than
Students Did Discuss Problems and Found It Helped
Chart 2: Discussed Problems with Family or Friends
Inmates and Students
54%
33%
31%
6%
Did Not Want to Discuss Problems Discussed and Found It Helped
Inmates Students
About one third of inmates reported that as adolescents they were reluctant to discuss their problems with
others, compared with only six percent of students. Nearly one third of inmates reported they did discuss
their problems and felt that it helped them, while the percentage was significantly higher for students.
IDEAS FOR ACTION
• Increase the capacity of parents, teachers, mediation in schools, youth-serving
and other adults with whom children and agencies, and religious organizations.
adolescents come in contact to listen to, When parents and others significant to
hear, and respond to children and young people are involved with youth in
adolescents when they want to talk about capacity-building skills, the effectiveness of
their problems and are seeking ideas of how the training is greatly increased. This
to handle difficult situations and emotions. training would help children and youth not
only identify issues that trouble them but
• Increase the social communication skills of would also help them to express their
young people through thoughts and feelings about these issues.
• teaching the identification and
constructive expression of feelings • teaching older children to teach other
to young people and to the parents, younger children mediation and
teachers, and other adults with communication skills. Advantage: young
whom they come in contact. This people respond well to other young people.
could be part of a curriculum on This is a capacity-building and self-
communication skills and conflict sustaining; young people can bring these
skills into other situations.
11

11. Finding 3: Inmates’ Responses Indicate More Physical
and Sexual Abuse in Childhood and Adolescence
Chart 3: Physical or Sexual Abuse
Inmates and Students
53%
46%
37%
26%
16%
14%
5%
2%
Physical Abuse Sexual Abuse
Male Inmates Female Inmates Male Students Female Students
Questionnaires indicated inmates were physically and sexually abused as adolescents in substantially higher
percentages than students.
IDEAS FOR ACTION
• Educate parents, other adults, adolescents, • Educate parents through parent education
and children about physical and sexual abuse programs and public awareness campaigns of
and how it affects development. Provide the differences between discipline and
information on ways of dealing with abuse physical abuse, and provide information on
and neglect if they occur. effective alternatives to physical punishment.
• Continue to educate professionals through in- • Support the expansion of programs dealing
service and continuing education. with abuse throughout the community.
• Educate students in human services and
education through course work and
internships.
12

12. Finding 4: Fathers Were Absent More Often in Families of Inmates
Chart 4: Father Absent From Home
Inmates and Students
61%
56%
38%
34%
Male Inmates Female Inmates Male Students Female Students
Similar percentages of male and female inmates reported their fathers had been absent from home, during
their adolescence. In both cases, the percentage is significantly higher than that of male and female students.
IDEAS FOR ACTION
• Encourage positive involvement of fathers in • Recognize that in some families, fathers are
families, with major emphasis on the sources of abuse and neglect and some
emotional and nurturing roles of fathers. families function better without abusive
fathers present.
• Encourage the development of education
programs for fathers on fathering. Keep in • In some instances, father substitutes, such as
mind that most inmates have one or more coaches, teachers, friends’ fathers,
children and most inmates return to their grandfathers, uncles, and big brothers, can
families. Education of inmates on fathering play important roles in the lives of children
would reduce risks for their children, who are and adolescents. Public awareness
at higher risk than children in families where campaigns might encourage the development
no family member has been incarcerated. of these relationships.
13

13. Finding 5: Fewer Inmates’ Parents Completed High School
Chart 5: Parents Did Not Complete High School
Inmates and Students
26%
24%
21%
19%
10% 10% 10%
7%
Father Did Not Complete High School Mother Did Not Complete High School
Male Inmates Female Inmates Male Students Female Students
Male and female students reported in similar percentages that their parents did not complete high school.
For male and female inmates the percentages were significantly higher.
IDEAS FOR ACTION
• Create family literacy programs and support • Develop neighborhood-based continuing
those that already exist. Some programs such education for parents and other adults: in
as Head Start have companion programs to neighborhood schools provide academic
educate parents in fundamental academic training to prepare parents and other adults
skills: reading, writing, and math. These for jobs; provide childcare in these programs.
programs can be greatly expanded.
14

14. Finding 6: More Families of Inmates Received Welfare
Chart 6: Family Received Welfare
Inmates and Students
39%
33%
5%
3%
Male Inmates Female Inmates Male Students Female Students
More than 30 percent of inmates reported their families had been on welfare during their adolescence. The
percentage for students was less than five percent.
IDEAS FOR ACTION
• Create jobs which pay good wages in low- • Reduce or eliminate reliance on welfare and
income neighborhoods. encourage economic self-sufficiency.
• Give economic incentives to persons willing
to establish businesses in low-income
neighborhoods.
15

15. Finding 7: Drug and Alcohol Abuse Was More Common Among Inmates in Adolescence
Chart 7: Drug and Alcohol Abuse
Inmates, Institutionalized Juveniles, and Students
56%
51%
47%
45%
41%
39%
33%
23%
20%
18%
13%
8% 7% 7%
5% 5%
0% 1%
Heavy Alcohol Use* Weekly/Daily Marijuana Use Weekly/Daily Cocaine, Crack, or
Heroin Use
Male Inmates Female Inmates
Male Institutionalized Juveniles Female Institutionalized Juveniles
Male Students Female Students
*Six or more glasses/cans/drinks of beer, wine, or hard liquor consumed at one time
Heavy use of alcohol, and weekly use of marijuana and illegal drugs were reported by a substantially higher
percentage of inmates and institutionalized juveniles than by students.
IDEAS FOR ACTION
• Expand the education of youths, parents, • Increase the duration of insurance coverage
school personnel and others to recognize the for such programs to improve efficiency and
early signs of drug and alcohol abuse. staying power.
• Create and enhance innovative drug and • Create incentives to establish more
alcohol abuse treatment programs that foster treatment programs; long waiting periods
resolving problems that lead to the chemical for admission would thus be reduced or
abuse in the first place. These problems eliminated.
include the risk factors of
sexual/physical/emotional abuse and • Evaluate these programs: Pay careful
inability to confide and to talk about attention to whether the services these
feelings and problems, and pressures to use programs offer are responsive to the issues
chemicals and act out in anti-social ways as presented by youth and their families and
means of feeling part of a group. whether these services divert youth from
behaviors related to chemical abuse.
16

16. Finding 8: More Inmates Felt Depressed in Adolescence
Chart 8: Felt Depressed/Suicidal
Inmates, Institutionalized Juveniles, and Students
67%
36% 38% 36%
33%
30%
25%
22% 21%
18% 18%
7%
Felt Sad, Discouraged, Hopeless Attempted Suicide
Male Inmates Female Inmates
Male Institutionalized Juveniles Female Institutionalized Juveniles
Male Students Female Students
The percentage of inmates and institutionalized juveniles who reported feeling depressed and attempting
suicide was much higher than the percentage reported by students. In all three populations, females reported
these feelings in greater portions than males.
IDEAS FOR ACTION
• Provide affordable, neighborhood-based, • Increase the duration of coverage for
culturally appropriate mental health services such programs to improve efficiency
for young people and their families, services and staying power.
that build on client strengths and take into
account individual differences along such • Evaluate these programs: Pay careful
lines as gender, age, and sexual orientation. attention to whether the services these
programs offer are responsive to the
• Create incentives to establish more issues presented by youth and their
treatment programs; long waiting periods families and whether these services
for admission would thus be reduced or divert youth from behaviors related to
eliminated. depression.
17

17. Finding 9: Fewer Inmates Liked School and Were Concerned About School Work
Chart 9: Liked School/Concerned About School
Inmates and Students
84% 84%
78% 76%
71%
62%
56%
49%
Liked School Concerned About Schoolwork
Male Inmates Female Inmates Male Students Female Students
Almost an equal percentage of students reported liking school and being concerned about school. They
reported liking school in somewhat higher proportion than inmates, and a much higher percentage of
students said they were concerned about schoolwork.
IDEAS FOR ACTION
• Student internships and other forms of • Organize large secondary schools into
community-based learning should be neighborhood units where students and
promoted and funded. teachers can relate more effectively.
• Create programs and curricula that children, • Develop interdisciplinary curricula.
adolescents and their families see as
relevant and receptive to them. • Encourage education/business partnerships.
• Summer internships for teachers in work • Train current and future school teachers and
settings should be encouraged and funded. administrators to involve parents in schools.
School encouragement for parent involvement
• Implement public information campaigns to has been shown to improve attendance,
help children, adolescents, and their attitudes, behavior, and achievement in all
families understand the value of education ethnic and socioeconomic settings.
and that young people cannot succeed
without education.
18

18. Finding 10: Working Long Hours Was More Common Among Inmates in Adolescence
Chart 10: Worked Long Hours
Inmates and Students
27%
20%
9%
4%
Male Inmates Female Inmates Male Students Female Students
About a quarter of inmates reported working more than twenty hours per week, a point at which school
grades drop off significantly, according to a 1992 study of Minnesota education. Among students, only nine
percent of males and four percent of females reported working more than twenty hours.
IDEAS FOR ACTION
• Educate the business community, school
personnel, youth workers, parents, and
youths themselves that working more than
twenty hours a week can harm their school
work and involvement in social activities
with friends and families.
19

19. Finding 11: Frequent Shoplifting, Fighting, Vandalism
More Common Among Inmates in Adolescence
Chart 11: Shoplifting/Fighting/Vandalism
Inmates and Students
81% 82%
78%
77%
72% 73% 74%
64% 67%
58% 57%
42%
30% 32%
25%
17% 15% 13%
Shoplifted Damaged or Destroyed Hit or Beat Up Others
Property
Male Inmates Female Inmates
Male Institutionalized Juveniles* Female Institutionalized Juveniles*
Male Students Female Students
*For the adolescent samples, time period included past 12 months only, for the inmates the question covered the entire
adolescence
Inmates and institutionalized juveniles reported they shoplifted, damaged property and fought with others in
substantially higher percentages than students.
IDEAS FOR ACTION
• Use victim-offender mediation and restitution • For some youth, swift, sure consequences are
and family group counseling at the first signs effective in diverting them from criminal
of these behaviors. These restorative behavior. We need to evaluate punishment-
approaches communicate that these behaviors oriented programs and mediation/restitution
are wrong and have serious consequences. programs to see which programs are effective
They foster the taking of responsibility for which types of youth under what
without further harming children and conditions.
adolescents. In addition, these programs
involve parents and cost much less than court
involvement. Satisfaction with mediation on
the parts of victims and offender is much
higher than satisfaction with traditional
sanctions.
20

20. For some questions on the inmate survey there are no comparative data on the other groups. These data are
useful, however, for developing a profile of Minnesota prison inmates. Some of the experiences shown
below may potentially be additional risk factors in the lives of inmates.
Finding 12: Out of Home Placements During Childhood and Adolescence Common Among Inmates
Chart 12: One or More Out of Home Placements
Inmates by Race
75%
45% 44% 44%
36%
White African American Hispanic Native American Asian
A large percentage of inmates reported that, as adolescents, they had been placed with a foster family,
children’s shelter, group residence or other out-of-home facility.
IDEAS FOR ACTION
• Provide early and more effective • When families are not able to care for their
interventions when families show signs of children make sure there are well-trained and
being unable to care for their children. committed foster parents prepared to handle
these children, many of whom are
• Increase availability of support services for challenging to care for.
children and families where abuse and • Increase training and
neglect have occurred. opportunities for respite for foster
parents to give incentive and
skills to care for high-risk
children.
21

21. Finding 13: Dropping out of School and Frequently Switching Schools
Common for Inmates During Adolescence
Chart 13: Dropped Out of School/Switched Schools
Inmates by Gender
48%
38%
34%
28%
Did Not Finish High School Three or More School Changes
Male Inmates Female Inmates
About a third of male inmates reported they had dropped out of school or switched schools three or more
times. For females, the dropout rate was significantly higher.
IDEAS FOR ACTION
• Examine more carefully individual reasons • Increase transition mechanisms such as
for students’ frequently switching schools. student-run and teacher-supervised
Focus interventions as appropriate, including orientation sessions for new students,
the option of remaining in the same school services/support to help students catch up on
when their families move. their schoolwork, and develop peer
buddy/guide systems for new students and
• Explore as a long-range solution how their families.
affordable housing, job opportunities, and
family support affect students’ switching of • Expand and evaluate truancy reduction
schools; switching schools appears to be programs and begin them in elementary
related to poverty and lack of economic schools.
opportunities for parents.
• Sponsor research to identify reasons for
• Ensure adequate support exists for children in frequent switching of schools.
families that move frequently.
22

22. LIMITATIONS
All social science research has limitations and this Since we don’t know which students might later
study is no exception. Our work has four limitations. become inmates, we are assuming that all public
First, relying on inmates’ memories of their school youth have “good” outcomes.
adolescence raises concerns about the ability of
inmates to recall their adolescent experiences. The choice of two of the comparison groups, namely
the incarcerated juveniles and the Minnesota adults,
Second, the inmates who were adolescents during the was intended to address concerns about the ability of
1970’s and early 1980’s (over half of the inmates inmates to recall their adolescence. Since inmates
were 30 years of age or older) were compared to adolescent experiences differed from the experiences
students age 13-18 in 1987. This difference in time of Minnesota adults, but were similar to the
periods could account for some of the differences experiences of the incarcerated juveniles we have
between the two groups. The third limitation is that more confidence in the inmates’ ability to recall their
not all inmates responded to the survey. adolescence.
Approximately 1700 inmates responded to the The findings support our hypothesis that groups with
survey, representing 42% of the total population of similar outcomes have similar adolescent
inmates. White inmates and older inmates were experiences. With respect to which inmates chose to
more likely to respond to the survey than would be respond, it is reasonable to assume that the inmates
expected given their percentages in the total inmate with the most risks were the least cooperative. If this
population. The respondents may differ on other is true, the contrast between inmates and others
unknown characteristics. Finally, the public school would be even more dramatic than the findings
comparison group may contain some adolescents illustrate.
who later become inmates.
23

23.
Further Reading
These articles give an idea of how my thinking has changed since I worked on the survey of prison
inmates sixteen years ago.
Gilgun, Jane F. (in press). Reflections on 25 years of research on violence. Reflections: Narratives of
Professional Helping.
Gilgun, Jane, F. (2009). A process model of interpersonal violence. Scribd.com/professorjane.
Gilgun, Jane F. (2009). Accountability for sexual violence scales. Scribd.com/professorjane.
Gilgun, Jane F. (2009). Chills, thrills, power, and control: The phenomenology of family violence.
Scribd.com/professorjane.
Gilgun, Jane F. (2009). Detecting the potential for violence. Scribd.com/professorjane and
Amazon Kindle.
Gilgun, Jane F. (2009). Family incest treatment. Scribd.com/professorjane.
Gilgun, Jane F. (2009). Family incest treatment and professional treatment for abusers. Amazon
Kindle.
Gilgun, Jane F. (2009). Guilt by association: Does one‐armed Jack’s race have anything to do
with it? Scribd.com/professorjane.
Gilgun, Jane F. (2009). It takes a village to stop a father from beating toddlers.
Scribd.com/professorjane.
Gilgun, Jane F. (2009). Preventing the development of sexually abusive behaviors.
Scribd.com/professorjane and Amazon Kindle.
Gilgun, Jane F. (2009). Two boys: A friend is someone who knows your secrets….and keeps
them. Scribd.com/professorjane. Available on Amazon Kindle as Salamander: A story of two boys.
Gilgun, Jane F. (2009). Two boys: Similar backgrounds, different outcomes. Why?
Scribd.com/professorjane.
Gilgun, Jane F. (2009). What child sexual abuse means to abusers. Amazon Kindle and
scribd.com/professorjane.
Gilgun, Jane F. (2009). What child sexual abuse means to child survivors. Amazon Kindle and
scribd.com/professorjane.
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24. Gilgun, Jane F. (2009). Shame, blame, and child sexual abuse: From harsh realities to hope.
Amazon Kindle, scribd.com/professorjane, and stores.lulu.com/jgilgun.
Gilgun, Jane F. (2009). Stories of crime: Violence isn’t what you think it is.
Scribd.com/professorjane.
Gilgun, Jane. F. (2009). Children with conduct issues: Part 1: A case of a girl whose behavior got
worse. Scribd.com/professorjane.
Gilgun, Jane F., & Alankaar Sharma (2008). Child sexual abuse. In Jeffrey L. Edleson & Claire M.
Renzetti (Eds.) Encyclopedia of Interpersonal Violence (pp. 122‐125). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Gilgun, Jane F. (2006). Children and adolescents with problematic sexual behaviors:
Lessons from research on resilience. In Robert Longo & Dave Prescott (Eds.), Current perspectives on
working with sexually aggressive youth and youth with sexual behavior problems (pp. 383‐394).
Holyoke, MA: Neari Press.
Gilgun, Jane F. (2008). Lived experience, reflexivity, and research on perpetrators of interpersonal
violence. Qualitative Social Work, 7(2), 181‐197.
Gilgun, Jane F., & Laura S. Abrams (2005). Gendered adaptations, resilience, and the perpetration
of violence. In Michael Ungar (Ed.), Handbook for working with children and Youth: Pathways to
resilience across cultures and context (pp. 57‐70). Toronto: University of Toronto Press (invited and peer
blind reviewed)
Gilgun, Jane F., Danette Jones, & Kay Rice. (2005). Emotional expressiveness as an indicator of
progress in treatment. In Martin C. Calder (Ed.), Emerging approaches to work with children and young
people who sexually abuse (pp. 231‐244). Dorset, England: Russell House.
Gilgun, Jane F. (2005). Evidence‐based practice, descriptive research, and the resilience‐schema‐
gender‐brain (RSGB) assessment. British Journal of Social Work. 35 (6), 843‐862. (invited and peer blind
reviewed)
Gilgun, Jane F. (2005). The four cornerstones of evidence‐based practice in social work. Research on Social
Work Practice, 15(1), 52‐61.
Gilgun, Jane F. (2004). A strengths‐based approach to child and family assessment. In Don R.
Catheral (Ed.), Handbook of stress, trauma and the family (pp. 307‐324). New York: Bruner‐Routledge.
(invited and peer blind reviewed)
Gilgun, Jane F. (2004). Deductive qualitative analysis and family theory‐building. In Vern
Bengston, Peggye Dillworth Anderson, Katherine Allen, Alan Acock, & David Klein (Eds.). Sourcebook of
Family Theory and Methods (pp. 83­84) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Gilgun, Jane F. (2002). Social work and the assessment of the potential for violence. In Tan Ngoh
Tiong & Imelda Dodds (Eds.), Social work around the world II (pp. 58‐74). Berne, Switzerland:
International Federation of Social Workers.
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25. Gilgun, Jane F. Christian Klein, & Kay Pranis. (2000). The significance of resources in models of
risk, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14, 627‐646. This article is based on the inmate survey.
Gilgun, Jane F., & Laura McLeod (1999). Gendering violence. Studies in Symbolic Interactionism, 22,
167‐193.
Gilgun, Jane F. (1996). Human development and adversity in ecological perspective,
Part 2: Three patterns. Families in Society, 77, 459‐576. Lead article.
Gilgun, Jane F. (1996). Human development and adversity in ecological perspective:
Part 1: A conceptual framework. Families in Society, 77, 395‐402. Lead article
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