PA theories

1. Public Administration in the
Central-East Europe and Russia
during the Communism and the
Transition
By Prof. Dr. Maria Bordas
National School of Public Service
Faculty of Public Governance and International Studies
Doctoral School of Public Administration
Public Administration Theories and Public Administration Sciences
2020.

2. The reasons for slowing down the
modernization process are:
• Civil Revolutions in Mid-19th Century-Reconstruction
• Conservation of Feudal Conditions:
- Second serf: bondage, robotic system, tax-exempt noble
estates
- In the absence of capital, no large-scale agricultural
enterprise will be established
• Slow development of goods production:
-Little effect of the industrial revolution: no capital
accumulation, no large geographical discoveries,
inventions,
- Expansion of the Turkish Empire in the south

3. Modernization of Central and Eastern
Europe
• German-Roman Empire (abolished in 1806)
- Left Rhine: French Influence - The State
Economic Order of Capitalism
- East: reforms from above by absolutist rulers
• New states in the early 20th century:
- 1918: Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland,
Yugoslavia, Austria
- Fragile democracies: danger of Communist
takeover, strengthening of extreme right, Nazi
occupation

4. Feudal Absolutist Reforms 1.
Habsburg empire:
- Maria Theresa: Public Duty, 1767 - Patriarch of the
Lord
- Jozeph II. : abolition of the serf system,
modernization of public administration
Austria:
- The Civil Revolution of 1848-49: a setback
- Austrian Constitution of 1867:
- National independence, democratic institutions,
political and liberties
- Economic modernization

5. Prussia: (from 1525)
Reforms in the 17th Century:
- Economy: mercantilism, support of
manufactories, distribution of land to peasants
- Public administration: develop a strong army,
public education and transport
- State: Absolute monarchy, with the economic
and political power of the junker landowners
Feudal Absolutist Reforms 2.

6. Prussia after the Civil Revolutions of 1848-49 - The „Prussian
Way Model”:
Constitutional monarchy (dominance of the junker
landowners)
Economic reforms: modernized large agricultural estate,
industrial development, unified customs union, infrastructure,
railways
Modernization of public administration:
Strengthening municipal self-government, rationalization
Abolition of the Serf System: Ownership - Compensation with
Treasury Bills
Public service: expertise
Feudal Absolutist Reforms 3.

7. The „Prussian Way Model” 1.
• Efficienty Prussian state and administration:
Autocratic, able to adapt to socio-economic challenges
even in a militarized system
Chancellor Bismarck: "The great questions of the age
are not decided by speech or majority decisions, but by
'blood and iron.' (1862)
- Modernized administration:
- Industrial Law: abolition of guilds (1869) - freedom of
enterprise
- Social security: impact of left-wing movements

8. The Prussian Way Development 2.
Militarized state system:
- General liability for military service
- Act on Servicemen: supply for the military
- Liability of Civilians for military service
- Military administration: above the civic administarion
1871. – Second German Empire:
- Protestant party: modernization
- Prussian Junkers: military-bureaucratic centralization
Because of the communist danger they temporarilyput
aside their conflicts.

9. Organization and administration of
the fascist state 1.
Causes of Fascism:
- Fragile democracies
- Lack of democratic traditions
- Communist threat
- Economic crisis: poverty, unemployment
Solution: concentration of power, centralized state
It is based on a far-right party representing a
monopoly-knife layer
Not: in the old democracies

10. Organization and administration of
the fascist state 2.
• Traditions in the Weimar Republic:
- Centralized and militarized state organization
- Modern and efficient public administration
• Weimar Constitution: Civil Constitution
Possibility of establishing a dictatorship:
- President of the Republic: right to dissolution of the
Imperial Assembly, emergency ordinances in the form
of presidential decrees, right to suspension of the
constitution, use of armed force, restriction of
freedom of assembly and of the press
- Emptying the legislature

11. Fall of the Weimar constitution
• Economic crisis: reparation, social problems,
unemployment
• 1918 German Communist Party - formation of Soviet
republics - Bolshevik influenc
• 1932 Election: Nazi Party in Minority - Communist and
Social Democratic Party Majority
• 1933 Hitler Chancellor
• 1934. President Hindenburg: Full Power for the
Government
Outcome: public investment - jobs, wage increases, land
and tax exemption for peasants - support for the masses

12. State and administrative system of
Third Reich 1.
• Adolf Hitler: Chancellor and leader of the Nazi Party
"Imperial Chancellor and Fuhrer of German Nation„
• Governance: through emergency orders
• Member States: Under the control of Deputy Lords
subordinate to the Minister for the Interior
• Parliament: Members of the Nazi Party only
• Political parties: banned except Nazi party
• Local authorities: Under the supervision of the supervisory
authorities attached to the Minister for the Interior
• Corporate bodies: economic and labor administration -
close monitoring

13. State and administrative system of
Third Reich 2.
• Justice:
- Military courts - people's tribunals - static procedure
- Extending anti-state crime
- Ministry of Justice: may order the courts
- Gestapo: investigation, prosecution, review of court
judgments
- Judgmental aspect: "healthy people's sentiment"
- Lack of civil rights: particularly racial and political
discrimination
Militarized state: SS (Schutzstaffel) and Wehrmacht

14. The Russian feudal state
• Traditions of Byzantine rule:
- Isolated from Europe
- Conquering wars from the 13th century
- No Renaissance, Enlightenment and Reformation
- Despotic Power – monolpoly of the Orthodox Christian
Church
- Byzantine public institutions: the dominant role of the
church, despotic governance (combining canon law and
secular law)
• Russia: Extreme authoritarianism - the merger of monopoly
capital, the feudal landlord and tsarist power

15. The Russian state organization
• Czar:
- Right to make laws and regulations
- Management of public administration - with full
power
- Informer network - Siberian Exile
- Police Ministry - Political Police
- Imperial Gendarmerie - at local level
- Militarized administration: military courts, military
coercive measures
- There is no constitution or liberal institutions (liberal
capitalism is omitted)

16. Peculiarities of Russian state development
• No Civil Movements (Except: Early 1800s: Decembrist
Movement)
• Institutions of Capitalism: with Tsarist support, within the
framework of feudalism
• No strong civic class - no representation of liberal values
• Monopol Capitalist Class: Ally of Tsarist Power
• People's movements: with anarchic and terrorist means -
violently overthrowing the existing social order (Narodnik
and anarchist movement)
• Wage laborers: due to the capitalization of large agricultural
estates

17. Reforms of the Tsarist System
Aim: establishment of capitalist economic relation with maintaining the base
of feudal order
Means:
• Support of foreign capital in order to develop economy
• Contradictory reforms:
- Local government system: have no autonomous rights – voting rights and
positions are based on the asset cesus
- Iurisdiction: secret police and gendermarie – means of police state
- General taxation – but not on the basis of burden sharing
- Abolition of serfdom: dissolve of feudal bonds – large agricultural estate –
peasants are not free (justice of the peace) – wage-workers - peasants

18. The collapse of the tsarist regime
• Civil Revolutions: Weak Liberal Citizenship - No
Social Base (1917 Provisional Civil Government)
• Soviets: Bolshevik Party apparatus (United
Soviets for Workers' and Military Deputies)
Dual power system followed by Bolshevik victory
- Bolshevik exclusivity - Menshevik and SRs
(Social Revolutioners)

19. The Soviet state and public administration
The Soviet government organization:
- Congress (represented by workers, peasants)
- Central Executive Committee;
- Committee People’s Political Commissars: local
representatives of the Bolshevik Party - Full Authority
- Revolutionary Committees: Revolutionary Acquisitions
- Political Comissar system, Red Army
- Police: State Security and Armed Forces
Unions: Defender of the Bolshevik Party

20. Building the Soviet economic and social
order
• Exclusivity of state ownership – confiscation without
compensation - close control of state-owned enterprises
• Central distribution of wealth - military communism - ticket
system - benefits in kind
• Forced manpower management: work discipline, excessive
standards, long working hours, 'sabotage' sanctions,
general obligation to work, mobilization of workforce
• Confiscation of agricultural land - compulsory supply of
crops (attic sweeps)
Ideology: necessity based on violence

21. Establishing Soviet economic
governance - war communism
• Nationalization: (confiscation without compensation)
Land ownership, banks, industrial companies, transport
production assets can be owned only by the state
• Economic naturalization:
Bypass commodity and money markets
Black market, bartering
• With state compulsion:
Ideology: Necessity (Communism is superior –
Economic development in a short time) – Buharin:
violence is allowed
Violence: peasant riots, 'sabotage' actions, class
hostility to labor camps (Gulag)

22. NEP New Economic Policy (Novaja
Ekonomicseszkaja Polityika)
• Military communism is in crisis: the economy is at
its bottom, famine, discontent
• 1920s - NEP: (elaborated by Lenin)
- Financial interests of business bodies
- Introduction of market elements
- Agriculture: crop tax, later kolkhoz
- Industry: Small businesses in commerce and craft
- State-owned companies: self-accounting
(hozraszcsot) and contracting

23. The direct plan-instruction system
Its purpose: efficiency by creating economic interest
Tool: Plan Mechanism (Incentive Scheme)
- Economic Plan (State Plan Committee) - annual,
medium and long term
- Plan Instruction: Ministries and Executive
Committee directives for state-owned companies
- Content: range of goods, quantity, number of
employees, wages, prices
- State-owned company: paying taxes, investing the
rest in investment - strict financial regulation

24. Low efficiency of the Soviet economic
model 1.
János KORNAI’s book: „The Shortage”
- The communism wanted to shape the market into its own
image: ignoring the law of the market
- Demand control: demand was adapted to the production
of goods
- „Shortage" means queuing, authority distribution, low
consumption
- Forced industrialization: did not serve development of
economy - service sector was underdeveloped
- Market bargaining mechanisms: profit is based on
subsidy vs. withdrawal in the state-owned enterprisen
(political factor. Subject to political relationships of the

25. Low efficiency of the Soviet economic
model 2.
- Soft budget constraint: the system does not encourage
efficient operation (does not lead to loss and bankruptcy)
- “Gateway unemployment”: to have job is a constitutional
right (full employment) and duty (criminalized) - low
efficiency
- "Who does not work, does not eat„: capital is forbidden, no
exploitation, equality
- Price and wage regulation: was adjusted to the preference
of the Bolshevik Party, e.g. foods are cheap, car is
expensive - Puritan lifestyle – living on is guaranteed by the
Communist state

26. The crisis of the Soviet model
1980s:
- Low economic performance
- Low living standards
- Wages and salaries pensions are devalued
- Shortage of goods, low level choice for the
customers, queuing
- Low level public services and social health care

27. "Glasnost" and "perestroika"
• Gorbachev: Openness and Reforms - Social Debate
• People's opinion: the communist system is unviable
- it has no mass support
• Modernization attempt: 70 years later failed
• He could not make compromise with the market
economy or democratic institutions - contrary to
the ideology of communism
• The backwardness of the communist system vis-à-
vis the West is increasingly evident

28. Reasons for the low efficiency of the
Soviet model
• Turning off market mechanisms: low economic
performance - no increase of individual welfare - a
futile sacrifice
• Dismantling Democracy: Bolshevik Party Defines Public
Interest and Political Decisions – Political Power for its
Sake
• Low state efficiency: It questions the belief in a higher
order of communism
• Goal does not justify the means: mission consciousness
– state system based on Bolshevik ideology and
violence should be failed
• Personal cult: Increases dictatorship within Bolshevik
Party - concept and showcase lawsuits by Stalin to
eliminate his enemies in the Party

29. The Soviet government organization 1.
Democratic institutions exist formally, but in reality,
dictatorship:
"All power belongs to the working people„ - promise:
people's sovereignty, equal rights, prosperity (workers -
peasantry)
- No political pluralism: only the Bolshevik Party
- Elections: general and equal, but only for Bolshevik
candidates was allowed to vote
- Government posts: based on political loyalty
- There is no real separation of powers: the Bolshevik
party dominates the state organization – form of
government: "state party"

30. The Soviet government organization 2.
• Centralization: the only amim is to implement the
central political will (excluding local autonomy)
• People's Commissars: oversee implementation
• Councils: under dual direction – by second level
council and executive committee
• Justice: under political influence
• Trade unions: executives of Bolshevik decisions
• Use of Terror: If the instruction is not executed or
criticisms are made

31. The Soviet model in Central and Eastern
Europe after WW II
Local Communist Parties: Got political power with violence v.
unfair political games
Scenario: Communist parties under Bolshevik leadership -
People's front elections - Left parties can start – Disqualify them
after taking office - Intimidate voters - Falsify elections
- Hungary:
1945: FGKP Absolute Majority - Forced Rape of MKP Coalition -
Acquisition of Ministry of Interior and Law Enforcement by the
Bolshevik Party - Merger of SZDP Peasant Party – Squeezing out
the FGKP (Show trials, Defamation, Intimidation, Political
Murder)
1947: "Blue Label Elections„ (falsified by the Bolshevik Party):
MKP (Hungarian Communist Party) wins

32. Communist takeover 1.
• Steps:
Economy:
- Nationalization (confiscation without compensation) in
industry and agriculture
- Forced industrialization
- Collectivisation of agriculture (land confiscation from the
owners and establishment of a state-owned large enterprise)
- High rate of state investment
• Constitution: Communist Party Leadership, Worker Power,
Collective Property, Trade Unions, Close Relations with the
Soviet Union

33. Communist takeover (2)
• Reckoning with class enemies: old ruling class (landlord
aristocracy, capitalists, churches, civic parties, small-
holder peasants) arrests, imprisonments, deportations,
internment, exciles – using the political police to it
• Criminal Sanctioning: Offenses Against the State and
Collective Property Protection – declared asserious
crimes
• Show trial: against own members - public form:
"shopwindow trials„
• Cult of personality: leader of the Communist Party
should be admired by the people

34. Reform of the Stalinist system, after
the Death of Stalin
• More liberal politics - national special path policy -
debate, criticism
• Socialist legality: abolishing police-state methods
• KGST: economic support to Member States
• Dissatisfaction movements: low standards of living
and lack of political and liberty rights
• Economic reforms: unsuccessful - wage increases,
welfare benefits

35. The Hungarian model - attempts at reform
Imre Nagy: Political-economic reforms
- Legality: Review of show trials, amnesty, abolition of
internment camps, crackdown on political police
- Economic reforms: state subsidies, moderate taxes,
price cuts, wage increases, rehabilitation of kulaks
(small landowners)
- Political reforms: Opportunities for debate with the
opposition, more liberal political life
- Reconstruction: Mátyás Rákosi – reaction of people:
1956 Revolution against communism

36. Attempts at economic reform
in Hungary 1.
• Economic reform of 1968: estableshed the "indirect
plan directive model”
Economic autonomy of state-owned enterprises: it is
more efficient if can achieve own economic decisions
and to make profit
• Economic Regulatory System: Instead of Direct Plan
Directives - Incentive, in legal form, but with economic
content (financial regulation, labor management, price
and wage regulation)
• Central administration: fewer ministries, functional
(Ministry of Finance, Price and Wage Office, Planning
Office Ministry of Labor) - sectoral (industry,
agriculture, foreign and domestic trade, etc.)

37. Attempts at economic reform
in Hungary 2.
• 1984 organizational and legal reform:
Organizational and legal guarantees for economic
autonomy of state-owned enterprises
• Self-governing bodies: Employees of the state –owned
enterprises are elected as members - Exercise of all
property rights
• Supervision from Legality: Public Administrations Can
Only Investigate Lawfull Operations, but Not Decide on
the Economic Issues of the state-owned enterprises
• „Second Economy”: A competitive market on the
periphery of the economy
- Small business companies
- Institutions of market economy: competition law,
company law

38. Impact of economic reforms in Hungary
"Goulash Communism" - "The Happyest Barrack"
- The standard of living of the population has increased:
car, apartment, weekend house, higher consumption
- It has become possible to run small businesses
-State housing construction - a symbol of value
- Low food prices, utility tariffs
- Full employment
Paternalist tradition: population expects the state to
provide increased care
-"Premature welfare state" (Kornai): unable to meet
welfare and social expectations, neither the promise of
the communist state

39. Anomalies of social and economic reforms
in Hungary
• The Dilemma of Economic Reforms: Ownership by the State -
Ownership Rights excercised by self-governing bodies of the
State-Owned Enterprises – Not in the form of business
enterprises (no company law)
• Results:
- Lower efficiency than expected
- The self-governing body of a state-owned enterprise does not
behave like an owner – follow employee interests
- Environment: Centralized and bureaucratic economic
governance - Limited market mechanisms - State control
• Impact of social reforms: (Kádár system)
- Tradition: bargaining with political power - accepting political
leadership in return a higher living standard- no political
pluralism

40. The period of the Hungarian transition
• 1990: Which model is the "round table negotiations" -
institutions of liberal democracy – which modell to follow?
• Contradictory modernization: (failure of reforms)
• Extreme confrontation between the two political sides
(right wing and socialist liberal wing) - lack of consensus -
other ideas of market economy, state intervention, state
ownership, privatization, welfare institutions
• „Paraseline” (business companies close to political parties):
Role: Financing Elections, Building Media Empire from
financial resources of the state budget – high level state
corruption
The „spoil system" in public administration: importance of

41. „Majority democracy” 1.
• Ideology:
- Political will is disintegrated by political
divide of the two political sides –
unmanageability
• Criticism of the left-wings: the successor of
the Communist Party, having excessive
economic power, neoliberal, supportive of
globalization - it supports the downtrodden,
does not represent the middle class, not the
interests of the national economy, etc.

42. „Majority democracy” 2.
„Central Field of Power”:
- People's sovereignty: broad authority - 2/3 majority
in Parliament
- Legitimacy for the formulation of the public interest:
national economic and social policies
- Central political will can be executed quickly and
unhindered - limiting controlling bodies (especially
AB) - strong state intervention in the economy
- Centralization of public administration: restriction of
local government autonomy
Price: eradication of liberal democracy

43. Centralization of public administration
1.
Issues of the organization of public administration:
- Administrative tasks: at what level
- Administrative body: independent or subordinate
- Nature of the administrative task: authority, service
provider, organizer
1990. municipal system: low efficiency
- Decentralized, with strong autonomy
- Fragmented: the county is weak - the powers of the
municipalities are wide

44. Centralization of public administration 2.
• Reforms:
- Association of municipalities: voluntary
- Regions: Non-genuine Local Government
(Questions of Having Development Resources)
• 2010: Restriction of municipal rights (was a
constitutional fundamental right unit that time)
- Government Offices: Decentralized administrative
bodies
- District Offices: Non-local authority tasks - under
the direction of a government delegate
- "Nationalization" of local public service tasks
(public education and health)

45. Economic constitutionality
• 1990: Constitutional Court - wide review right - "invisible
constitution" - actio popularis
• 2010: Reducing the powers of the Contstiutional Court:
- Reduction of ex-ante and ex-post control of norms
- Appointment based on political loyalty
- Opposition divided (no parliamentary majority to query
the decisions of the CC)
• Reason: Unhindered implementation of government
economic policy
• Result: Lack of constitutionality and state under the rule of
law (lack of public policy approach, stability, predictability,
accountability, quality legislation)

46. Building institutions of the market
economy - privatization
• 1990 Constitution: Market Competition and Freedom of
Entrepreneurship (Competition Law, Price Law, Company Law,
Employment Law, Social Law, Social Security Law)
• 1989. Privatization
- Spontaneous Privatization – at the end of 1980-s by the
communists
- "Political Privatization" ÁVÜ by the first democratic government
since 1990-s
- "Privatization of Privatization„ by the left wing-liberal
government since 1995
- Privatization of infrastructure sector (concession) since 1995

47. Privatization
Objective: Establishing market economy
institutions in the short term, at all costs
Results: corruption and drastic decrease of the
state assets, i.e. waste, law efficiency
Intense political debate:
- The state is necessarily a bad host (liberal
conception)
- State ownership is a tool of economic
governance (right wing conception)

48. Privatization of public infrastructure
services
1994: sale of gas and energy sector
Concession: telecommunications, highway, water
service, local and long distance road transport
Price Control Anomalies:
- Ineffective price regulation system
- Energy prices are the subject of political struggle
2000: Liberalization - Price doesn't matter
2010: "Utility Cuts" - Forcing Businesses Out of the
Market (Price Rise, Re-bidding Monopolies)
Result: Political profit but low efficiency

49. State subventions 1.
• State subventions: low efficiency
European Union: if a market anomaly needs to be resolved
- Left wing: supports multinational companies
- Right wing: Hungarian small and medium-sized enterprises
(Széchényi plan) – since 2010 German nultinational enterprise in
return of political support in the UE by German politicians
Agriculture: (of EU importance)
- Compensation of the former owners: non-competitive small
estates
- Poor market structure: monopoly position of purchasers
- Concentration of the land: pocket contracts for the foreigners,
since 2010 for the domestic enterpreneurs loyal to the
government

50. State subventions 2.
• 2010. agriculture
Rural development strategy:
- Tendering for State Land - Farmer Landing
(Corruption: those are selected who are loyal to the
government)
- Re-regulation of the agricultural market: protection of
interests, price regulation, state aids, mandatory
content of contracts
- Agricultural Market Order: regulation of agricultural
production conditions in its own sphere, risk
management funds, elimination of "pocket contracts"

51. State monopolies
Since 1990: gradually decreased
2010: Number increased (unusual in market economies)
Reason: Acquire new markets for your own paraseline close
to the government
Instrument: Establishment of state-owned enterprises and
creation a favorable market position for them (by state aid
and by public procurement)
Public Procurement: (Party State Traditions)
- Objective: Provatizing public tasks (contracting out, PPP)
- In fact: the conversion of public funds into private property
and the financing of parties – establishing an own capitalist
class for the govrening party in order to compensate the
advantages of the let wings.

52. Rationalization and efficiency of public
administration
Experiments:
- Organizational reforms: no two-thirds majority to it, but
from 2010 centralization
- Legislation: There is no tradition of quality legislation -
impact assessments, public policy approach, evaluation
of implementation
- Reducing Administrative Burdens - Deregulation: Legally
over-regulated public administration
- Controlling bodies: State Audit Office: no legal
consequences, government audit bodies: not
independent from the government

53. Attempts to reform the welfare and
health systems 1.
Two aspects:
- Solidarity
- Efficiency in the use of public funds
Traditions:
- Excessive expectations
- Gray economy
- Avoid paying taxes
- Widespread and subjective welfare services

54. Since 1990: loss on the state budget – state debt - grey economy,
unemployment, declining class
Reforms:
- „Bokros Package” (1995): Reducing Welfare Services –
Constitutional Court Review
Economic Stabilization: (harsh conflict on the economic policy
between the two sides)
- Filter out "free-riders"
- Establishing an autonomous social security fund
- 2010: Work-based society: Public work, drastic cuts in social
benefits
- Pension system: anomalies of pay-as-you-go system –
nationalization of private pension funds
Attempts to reform the welfare and
health systems 2.

55. Attempts to reform the welfare and
health systems 3.
Health:
Failed reform attempts (lack of consensus) several conceptions:
- Adequate level of care
- Guided patient care
- Liberalization of the insurance market
- Co-payment practice
- Privatization: "blackmailing" and corruption
2010: Nationalization
Financing: dual and inefficient
Pharmaceutical market: state aid - public health care – requires
high budget expenditure - 2010: Cutting subsidies and
redistributing the market by pharmacies

56. Economic policy 1.
• Since 1990: budget deficit - government debt
(gray economy - unemployment - lagging behind
- low efficiency – high state corruption)
• 1995: Bokros package - cuts in social spending
Intense opposites: neoliberal vs. fiscal
instruments:
- Curbing the population
- Tear layer support
- Developments: support for investments,
domestic businesses, housing construction
- Family allowances, minimum wage

57. Economic policy 2.
2010. 'unorthodox economic policy’
- Powerful state intervention
Objective: against globalization, interests of
national economy, welfare of population
Instrument: Increasing state ownership and
monopolies, strong financial market regulation,
special taxes on multinational companies, boosting
employment, supporting small and medium-sized
enterprises, more favourable middle-class taxation,
reducing social backing

58. Unorthodox economic policy 1.
• Nationalization:
Putting the Lunar Court in a favorable position
- crowding out business
Government acquisitions - price regulation -
making losses
Re-tender - Establishment of state-owned
enterprises
Welfare Measures: Forced Labor, Poverty
Increase, Utility Reduction, No Health Reform

59. Unorthodox economic policy 2.
• Taxation of Multinational Enterprises:
- Putting the loss for the consumers - price
regulation - mass layoffs - regulation: wage
supplement
• Middle class: more favorable taxes but no
increase in consumption
• Investments: Decrease in business investment -
prestige investments
• Improvements: for own paraseline – extremely
high state corruption

60. Unorthodox economic policy 3.
Results:
- Widespread Support: Emphasizes Welfare Principles
and National Economic Interests - Anti-Neoliberalism
- Economic Stabilization: Low Budget Deficit and Low
Economic Growth (EU Resources)
- Employment: wide public work - apparent growth –
controversial
- Rearrangement of economic positions: conscious -
to compensate for the economic dominance of the
left wing party
- Eliminating the state under the rule of law:
controversy over whether you have a more efficient
system - controversial

61. ANY QUESTIONS?