jezriah_j__krubeck_proposal_AQR

An Exploration of Effective
Communication Between Elementary School Parents and Teachers in Wyoming
Submitted by
Jezriah James Krubeck
A Dissertation Proposal Presented in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctorate of Education
Grand Canyon University
Phoenix, Arizona
September 14, 2015

ii
© by Jezriah J. Krubeck, 2015
All rights reserved.
GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY

iii
GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY
An Exploration of Effective
Communication Between Elementary School Parents and Teachers in Wyoming
Submitted by
Jezriah James Krubeck
Approved
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE:
Amar Almasude, Ph.D., Dissertation Chair
Timothy Gehle, Ed.D., Committee Member
Vivian Spicer, Ed.D., Committee Member
ACCEPTED AND SIGNED:
________________________________________
Michael R. Berger, Ed.D.
Dean, College of Doctoral Studies
_________________________________________
Date

v
Table of Contents
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................viii
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study....................................................................................1
Introduction....................................................................................................................1
Background of the Study ...............................................................................................1
Problem Statement .........................................................................................................3
Purpose of the Study......................................................................................................3
Research Question(s) .....................................................................................................4
Advancing Scientific Knowledge ..................................................................................5
Significance of the Study...............................................................................................6
Rationale for Methodology............................................................................................7
Nature of the Research Design for the Study.................................................................8
Definition of Terms........................................................................................................9
Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations ....................................................................12
Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study ........................................13
Chapter 2: Literature Review.............................................................................................15
Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem ......................................15
Theoretical Foundations and/or Conceptual Framework.............................................18
Review of the Literature ..............................................................................................19
Summary......................................................................................................................42
Chapter 3: Methodology ....................................................................................................45
Introduction..................................................................................................................45

vi
Statement of the Problem.............................................................................................45
Research Question(s) or Hypotheses ...........................................................................46
Research Methodology ................................................................................................48
Research Design...........................................................................................................49
Population and Sample Selection.................................................................................50
Sources of Data ............................................................................................................52
Validity.........................................................................................................................53
Reliability.....................................................................................................................54
Data Collection and Management................................................................................55
Data Analysis Procedures ............................................................................................57
Ethical Considerations .................................................................................................58
Limitations and Delimitations......................................................................................59
Summary......................................................................................................................60
References..........................................................................................................................64
Appendix A: Site Authorization ........................................................................................77
Appendix B: Informed Consent .........................................................................................79
Appendix C: MAXQDA License.......................................................................................84
Appendix D: Focus Group Questions ................................................................................85

1
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study
Introduction
Parent communication is a topic often overlooked when delineating factors that
determine a school’s success, according to Payne (2006). More often the focus is placed
on student achievement, scores, and rankings, both state and nationally (Pederson, 2007).
Teachers become so mired in creating lessons, preparing student interventions,
implementing curriculum, and serving on various committees that they do not focus the
needed time and attention required to build a healthy school/home rapport through
effective and timely school/parent communication (Payne, 2005). In addition, teachers
may feel burdened explaining, preparing, and including parents in their classrooms’
curriculum and instruction (Payne, 2006). Teachers and administrators are the experts in
their perspective fields and are therefore familiar and accustomed to educational language
and acronyms, but in communicating with parents, teachers may lack the adaptability
needed to communicate in a neutral and effective manner, and to parents from all
backgrounds and educational levels.
Background of the Study
With increasing emphasis placed on student achievement the focus of school
instruction has narrowed (Pederson, 2007). Additionally, a decrease in homogenously
intact families has altered the ability to easily communicate with parents, rendering it
more difficult and time consuming (Payne, 2009). Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, and
Darling (1992) acknowledged that a child’s achievement is directly impacted by a
parent’s involvement in school activities. Burr, Day, anmd Bahr (1993) suggested in the

2
family development theory (FDT) that development, behavior, and communication skills
are directly linked to an adolescent’s interaction with family members and the mimicking
of those members’ behaviors. With student achievement being central to a school’s
success in achieving Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP), the need for involved parents
becomes paramount for continued success. Yet, a dismal trend is noted by Ginsburg,
Cooke, Leinwand, Noell, and Pollock (2005), shown through student testing in Trends in
International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and Program for International
Student Assessment (PISA). The U.S. ranked eighth amongst twelve countries globally
on the TIMSS for fourth graders, ninth out of twelve countries globally for eighth graders
on the TIMSS, and ninth out of twelve globally for fifteen year olds on the PISA.
The days of a multifaceted curriculum, rich in diversity from science to math,
have ended (Pederson, 2007). Pederson (2007) purported that subject matter not used in
the assessment to meet the criterion of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) received less
classroom instruction and assessment, resulting in schools focused on meeting (AYP).
These new pressures combined with non-traditional households have created an
environment rigid in instruction but lacking in parent input and communication. Payne
(2009) reported that communication with parents must be altered for each individual
parent. The use of educational acronyms and professional jargon must be presented in a
way that is easily understood and adapted. Visuals and graphics are useful, according to
Payne (2009) when presenting testing information.

3
Problem Statement
It is not known how specific factors influence effective communication between
parents and teachers in an elementary school in Wyoming. A recent trend, as Leinwand,
Noll, and Pollock (2005) pointed out, has been to attribute declining test scores to subpar
instruction and a failing American education system. The American Education System,
specifically teachers, administrators, and the National Education Association (NEA),
place blame for not meeting the criterion of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) on the
restrictions this legislation creates and on what is emphasized in instruction (math,
reading, and writing), as Pederson (2007) suggested. Further studies conducted by Ewijk
and Sleegers (2010), Payne (2005, 2006, 2009), and Dogan and Sezer (2010) delineated
differences in student achievement based on their parents’ socioeconomic status (SES)
and the lack of propensity towards educational support, and specifically school-to-home
communication.
However, while this research does provide a background of some areas of existing
knowledge on this subject, what seems to be limited in scope is further study into the role
that basic and effective communication plays in student achievement as identified by
Payne, and Slocumb (2011). This study will therefore concentrate on evaluating the
current communication between a school and its respective parents.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative case study is to explore how specific factors
influence effective communication between parents and teachers within and outside of an
elementary school in Wyoming. Through the dissemination of focus-group data, surveys,

4
and individual interviews the problem statement of, “It is not known how specific factors
influence effective communication between parents and teachers in an elementary school
in Wyoming” will be explored. Effective and timely two-way communication is a
foundational component of a student’s success and achievement in school, as noted by
Payne (2009). The goal of this study is to determine how effective current two-way
communication efforts are between an elementary school and parents, and specifically
what dynamics impact perceptions of that communication.
ResearchQuestion(s)
Qualitative research tends to rely on a central research question that restates the
study’s purpose and to guide the data collection and data analysis processes (Denzin &
Lincoln, 2011; Merriam, 2009). For this research into specific factors which influence
effective communication between parents and teachers in an elementary school in
Wyoming, one central research question (R1) and two secondary research questions (R2,
R3) will be used.
R1: How do specific factors influence effective communication between parents
and teachers in an elementary school in Wyoming?
R2: How do specific barriers limit effective communication between parents and
teachers in an elementary school in Wyoming?
In addition to possible effects of language usage/acronyms, the amount of
communication and means by which that communication is made available and accessed
might likewise play a part in parents/teachers perceptions of communication. The

5
following research question and subsequent sub-questions will aid in exploring the
phenomenon of communication frequency and modes of communication.
R3: What is the role of the frequency and mode of communication between
parents and teachers in contributing to effective communication patterns in an
elementary school in Wyoming?
Advancing Scientific Knowledge
Communication cessation in the education setting can come from many sources
including language and terminology used, modes and methods of communication,
frequency, and outside factors, such as parent involvement and socioeconomic status.
There is a notable need to determine holistically how these individual factors create a
dissonance between schools and parents Garwronski (2012).
The Cognitive Dissonance Theory proposed that communication breakdown
occurs when respective parties experience discomfort from language misunderstandings,
cultural disconnects, or other factors (Garwronski, 2012). Garwronski (2012) noted that
communication dissonance is a documentable “negative emotional state,” as recorded
through MRI imagining of dissonance research volunteers’ brains. Subjects actively
avoided conflict either by altering perceptions and attitudes to match their surroundings
(peer pressure) or the conflict was avoided entirely to regain emotional normality (Veen,
Krug, Schooler, & Carter, 2009).
This study, a study focusing on individual’s perceptions of communication, will
add to the body of knowledge, as it is assumed that a disconnect in communication
between schools and families/home result from a discomfort in that communication.

6
Acronyms, means and modes, frequency, and language used in communication are all
possible facets that can lead to communication barriers or negative factors in regards to
communication. This study could be useful not only to the scholarly realm, but also to
school districts looking to positively impact their current communication efforts as a
means to garner greater parent support and ultimately increase student achovement.
Significance of the Study
This study will identify how teacher to parent communication, specifically
language used, the frequency, and modes of communication, can create barriers that
affect meaningful two-way communication from occurring between schools and families.
This gap in communication creates cognitive dissonance and avoidance of
communication (Gawronski, 2012). With ever increasing emphasis placed on a school’s
success as measured by Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) (Pederson, 2007), the need for
greater support from home becomes crucial for student success. Mendez (2010) found
that an increase in parent involvement, communication, training, and support of education
marked a notable increase in student achievement. Payne (2009) stressed the importance
of providing different and unique communication to parents from all socioeconomic
status facets to better include them in educational decision making for their children.
This inclusion creates a greater buy-in and thus a greater predisposition to support
educational outcomes (Payne, 2009). This new theoretical framework suggested by
Payne (2009), of adaptable communication will require a framework of effective and
non-effective modes of communication. By applying the Cognitive Dissonance Theory
and Gawronski’s (2012) study in communication and dissonance, parent reluctance,

7
teacher effort, and the establishment of a school-home disconnect can be explained,
trends highlighted, and solutions proposed. Once facets of disconnect are identified
through the Cognitive Dissonance Theory, a framework for effective and timely school-
to-home communication can be created. The significance of an effective communication
framework to the field of education would be notable, increasing parent support,
educational buy-in, and ultimately student success (Payne, 2009).
Rationale for Methodology
A case study will be utilized to explore the phenomenon of parent and school
communication as it will allow for greater exploration into teacher and parent perceptions
of communication (i.e. modes of communication, frequency of communication, language
used during communication, and satisfaction of current communication) otherwise
limited through the utilization of surveys (Knox & Burkard, 2009). Golafshani (2003)
noted that case studies are best used to study specific instances and groups of individuals.
As such, focusing on a specific school, for this study Sunset Elementary in Cody,
Wyoming, and its population’s perceptions of current school-to-home communication,
deem the case study design most appropriate within the qualitative methodology.
A case study of Sunset Elementary will allow for a group of individuals to be
studied in a personal and face-to-face (focus group administrator and focus group
participants) format, important in eliminating bias, fears, and aiding in creating a
comfortable respondent environment. Furthermore, a case study will provide the
opportunity to elaborate or expand upon other participant responses, which is a critical
and necessary benefit of the case study format. Additionally, a secondary one-on-one

8
format will likewise be offered for individuals not comfortable with a group respondent
scenario. Teacher and parent focus groups will allow for perceptions to be recorded,
coded, and tabulated, searching for trends in responses of perception to communication.
In addition, since this study will focus on perceptions or a specific instance, that being
current communication and supplemental components of that communication between
parents and an individual elementary school, this further aligns with the case study
format.
Nature of the ResearchDesignfor the Study
The Cognitive Dissonance Theory notes that communication is a fine line of
understanding and disconnect (Garwronski, 2012). With the topic of communication in
general being abstract, communication is thus affected greatly by numerous internal and
external factors creating a possibility of cognitive dissonance (Payne, 2009). The need
for effective and meaningful two-way communication is not only relevant but necessary
within an educational setting (Adams, Womack, Shatzer, & Caldarella, 2012). This study
will, as noted by Marshall and Rossman (2011), be research that looks at complexities
and processes” (p. 91). A qualitative study will be used for this dissertation, as individual
factors affecting communication will be sought that would otherwise be limited by
quantitative means. For a study of ongoing communication within a specific area and of
a targeted group of individuals, the case study model is most applicable (Creswell, 2014).
The case study is most applicable as it will focus on individuals (parents and teachers)
and of a specific instance, in this case the communication (modes, frequency, and
language used in communication) between parents and (Golafshani, 2003).

9
By attempting to identify the role educational language, frequency, and mode of
communication play in communication at an elementary school, a sound basis of
qualitative study is established. Additional questions do arise however such as the impact
of educational acronyms and their role in altering perceptions of school-home
communication, the function of frequency in communication, and the role of
communication accessible. The establishment of sub-questions will aid this study in
identifying specific areas that alter the perception of communication within the target
school and its individuals (teacher and parents). A qualitative approach thus is most
applicable and will meet the requirements of this methodology in questioning by
exploring in greater depth the phenomenon of communication currently taking place
between an elementary school and it’s parents.
Teacher and parent focus groups will be created, concentrating on the exploration
and identification of teacher/parent perceptions of communication modes (the means by
which information is exchanged from school to home), frequency (the timeliness,
duration, and regularity of communication), and language (the verbiage used to express
ideas, concerns, praises, and passing of school or parent information between school and
home). The corresponding results will be coded (first cycle coding of emotion coding
and second pass coding of pattern coding), looking for facets that create communication
dissonance.
Definition of Terms
The following terms were used operationally in this study.

10
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP). “An individual state's measure of yearly
progress toward achieving state academic standards. "Adequate Yearly Progress" is the
minimum level of improvement that states, school districts and schools must achieve
each year ("Glossary of terms," 2004).
Cognitive Dissonance Theory (CDT). The Cognitive Dissonance Theory (CDT)
“postulates that inconsistent cognitions elicit an aversive state of arousal (i.e.,
dissonance), which in turn produces a desire to reduce the underlying inconsistency and
to maintain a state of consonance” (Garronski, 2012 p.652).
No Child Left Behind (NCLB).
Section 6311 of the Act requires each state to develop a state
accountability system by developing a state plan that addresses academic
standards, academic assessments and accountability. The state
accountability system must be based on the academic standards and
academic assessments developed by the state. The state accountability
system must be the same system for all students and must include
sanctions and rewards to hold local educational agencies accountable for
student achievement and for ensuring adequate yearly progress. What
constitutes adequate yearly progress is defined by the state. However, the
same high standards of academic achievement must apply to all public
school students in the state (Wenkart, 2002 p.6).
Response to Intervention (RTI). Response to Intervention (RTI) is described by
the United States Department of Education as “Rigorous implementation of RTI includes
a combination of high quality, culturally and linguistically responsive instruction;

11
assessment; and evidence-based intervention. Comprehensive RTI implementation will
contribute to more meaningful identification of learning and behavioral problems,
improve instructional quality, provide all students with the best opportunities to succeed
in school, and assist with the identification of learning disabilities and other
disabilities” ("What is RTI?," 2012).
Socioeconomic Status (SES). SES refers to the compound of material wealth
and noneconomic characteristics, such as social prestige and education. SES is invariably
correlated with predictable differences in life stress and neighborhood quality, in addition
to less predictable differences in physical health, mental health, and cognitive ability
(Hackman & Farah, 2009).
Communication. For the purpose of this study, communication will be defined
as the one or two-way exchange of information, materials, and messages by schools or
parents and families.
Frequency of Communication. Frequency for the purpose of this study will be
defined as the consistency and number of attempts of communication made by
parents/families or by schools.
Modes of Communication. Modes of communication will be defined for this
study as the varying methods of communicating (IE. digital, paper, verbal, second hand,
written).
Language used in Communication. For the purpose of this study language used
in communication will be defined as the language, vocabulary, acronyms, and implied
meaning of communication from school-to-home or home-to-school.

12
Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations
The following assumptions will be present in this study:
1. It will be assumed that participants of Sunset Elementary surveys were honest,
forthright, free from bias, deception, and responded to the best of their ability.
Since the surveys will be conducted seeking meaningful insight into current
communications between parents and schools, the propensity for manipulation
is assumed to be low.
2. It will be assumed that Sunset Elementary parent focus group participants will
be honest and forthright in their questioning responses, free from bias, and
deception. Since this focus group will be conducted to explore current
communication efforts allowing for in-depth participant responses, and since
participants will volunteer to take part in this focus group and receiving no
monetary compensation the propensity for manipulation is assumed to be low.
3. It will be assumed that Sunset Elementary teacher focus group participants
will be honest and forthright in their questioning responses, free from bias,
and deception. Since this focus group will be conducted to explore current
communication efforts allowing for in-depth participant responses, and since
participants are voluntarily taking part in this focus group and receiving no
monetary compensation the propensity for manipulation is assumed to be low.
4. It will be assumed that this study is an accurate representation of current
communication efforts taking place in Cody, Wyoming, between elementary
teachers and elementary parents. This elementary is similar in population,
SES, and teacher to student ratios, therefore it will be assumed that Sunset

13
Elementary is a relevant representation of the remaining two elementary
schools in Cody, Wyoming
The following limitation/delimitations will be present in this study:
1. Lack of funding will limit the scope of this study. With copying costs,
2. Qualitative research coding software costs, and the cost associated with
transportation, the ability to cover a greater geographic will limit this
qualitative case study to Cody, Wyoming.
3. The implementation of focus groups and the time associated with
4. conducting focus group interviews, recording those interviews, transcribing,
coding, and delineating data will limit the scope of this study to Sunset
Elementary in Cody, Wyoming.
5. This case study will be delimited to only one elementary school in Cody,
6. Wyoming, limiting the demographic sample. This delimitation/limitation was
the results of time restrictions, monetary restrictions, and case study survey
size restrictions.
Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study
In summary, this study of communication at Sunset Elementary in Cody,
Wyoming, will be administered using a qualitative case study methodology. This case
study will explore communication and factors that affect that communication through
direct participant responses from focus groups. Focus groups will be separated, keeping
parents and teachers separate and by grade levels. In all there will be six groups: three
for parents (k-1, 2-3, 4-5) and three for teachers (k-1, 2-3, 4-5). Participant identities will

14
be protected and responses coded to further protect identities to eliminate the fear of
retribution by teachers on students for possible negative focus group responses.
Chapter two will explore various factors associated with communication and the
link between parent involvements with student achievement. Although ample research
supports the connection between parent involvement and student achievement, it is
limited in breadth, linking communication between schools and parents as the foundation
of that parent involvement and support. Chapter three will describe methodology,
research design, and procedures for investigation. Chapter four will detail how data was
analyzed and will provide both a written and graphic summary of the results. Chapter
five will provide a discussion and interpretation of results and the link of those results
with existing bodies of research related to this dissertation topic.

15
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem
Communication is a crucial part of any interaction between two entities. It can
dictate the effectiveness, the meaning, the outcome, both short-term and long-term, and
overall human health, according to Lee, Leung, Lo, Xiong, and Wu (2009). It makes
sense, therefore, to assume that communication plays a fundamental role in the
relationships formed and maintained between schools and parents. To research the topic
of communication in regards to school-parent communication would yield results too
sizeable and broad to accurately identify trends in those communication
efforts. Therefore, an inefficiency of communication must occur; the topic of
communication broken into small, digestible parts. Literature, journal articles, books,
and empirical studies have been written and published on these various parts of
communication, but in order to understand the phenomenon of school-parent
communication delineation must take place, categories defined, topics and subtopics
researched. This literature review will serve as an outline to understand factors that may
affect communication at Sunset Elementary.
Although the first article by Epstein is an older study (1986), it nevertheless
provides a significant starting point in appraising the role a parent’s education plays in
communicating with schools. Parent involvement in their child’s education is equally
important. Involvement will be defined for this qualitative study as more than simply
showing up for parent-teacher conferences. For this literature review various subtopics
will be included, such as: parent involvement in education decision making, parent
involvement in school and classroom activities, parent involvement in and out of school

16
educational activities, and finally, establishing boundaries and training for parent
involvement.
Language used and the way in which information is presented to parents is worth
including in this literature review as the way in which information is presented can create
barriers, frustration, and ultimately resistance to school functions, curriculum, and
educational significance (Duras, Aleksic-Maslac, & Darrer, 2012). The field of education
is full of acronyms that make comprehension of topics difficult for parents unfamiliar
with educational jargon. Duras, Aleksic-Maslac, and Darrer (2012) suggested a
breakdown of communication between parents, students, and schools with the increase in
educational acronyms being used by schools and texting acronyms being used by
students. A subtopic will include cultural or language barriers that could lead to a
breakdown in communication. Cultural identity and strict or varying religious views can
also lead to a breakdown in effective and meaningful two-way school-home
communication.
Socioeconomic status (SES) is another factor that might have bearing in levels
and effectiveness of communication between parents and schools. Payne (2011)
researched and published literature that provided a critical foundation to build further
exploration upon. With a division in SES classes, communication breakdown can occur
as priorities may be different for a lower SES family struggling to feed their family
versus a higher SES family with time to devote to their child’s education.
Student achievement will also be researched in connection with communication.
High achieving students are not an anomaly, according to Spector (2014) and a link
between home-school communications will be explored looking for trends and

17
commonalities. Finally, means of communication will be explored. Communication can
take place in a number of ways. With the advent of real-time technology, such as email
and social networking sites (Jennings & Wartella, 2013), the phenomenon of
communication should be explored and evaluated, and the effectiveness of these various
types of communication investigated. Attention must also be given to equitable means of
communicating.
Communication is a broad topic. It can include many aspects and could spur
multiple dissertation topics. This case study will be conducted to provide parents,
teachers, and administrators with a useful starting point in identifying means and modes
of effective and non-effective communication. Exploring the previously mentioned
topics and subtopics and incorporating research can create effective focus group
questions. Information, the compilation of articles and research contained in this
literature review, might provide for future researchers or research into the phenomenon of
parent-school communication.
With ever-increasing emphasis on student achievement, as dictated by Adequate
Yearly Progress (AYP) (Pederson, 2007), means to increase student retention and
problem solving must be found in order to continue to reach those rising student
achievement mandates. Schools, although adaptive in nature through means such as
pointed skill specific differentiated instruction (DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, & Gayle, 2010),
have worked towards continued achievement, but with rising AYP levels, additional
means must be found. Only so much work can be completed in the classroom and during
the day. This additional instruction must come from home, from parents or guardians.
Instruction, concepts, and expectations must therefore be communicated to parents

18
(Payne, 2011). This dissertation and literature review will serve as a contributing piece
of research to aid in this instructional transition. First, however, current trends and
satisfaction ratings must be determined. A foundation must be set and the successful and
lacking facets of communication identified. From this foundation, improved and
continued communication can occur. This literature review is meant as a means to
understand the gaps that may arise and the factors that are creating those gaps.
Theoretical Foundations and/or Conceptual Framework
The Cognitive Dissonance Theory originally proposed by Festinger (1962) and
expanded upon by Gawronski (2012) will serve as the theoretical foundation for this
study. Gawronski (2012) noted dissonance in communication as a real, and notable
phenomenon that hinders effective communication. Similar to musical dissonance where
undesirable tones or dissonance are avoided, when communication is not understood,
aligned, and purposeful, parties experience dissonance and attempt to avoid that
communication, tuning it out (Gawronski, 2012). In addition to a notable lack of
communication understanding, communication dissonance creates a very real and
documentable physical impact on individuals experiencing communication dissonance, as
shown by MRI imaging (Gawronski, 2012). If parties experienced cognitive dissonance
in the past, an active attempt to avoid future experiences will occur (Gawronski, 2012).
In a school setting this would equate to avoidance of meetings, school functions, and
parent/teacher interaction (Gawronski, 2012).

19
Review of the Literature
Theme 1: Parent Education and School-Home Communication.
Educational achievement is a theme that appears when looking at the connection
that exists between a parent’s school support and reinforcement to their children’s
education (Adams, Womack, Shatzer, & Caldarella, 2012). Epstein (1986) observed a
trend linking less parent education and lower student achievement in addition to a noted
lack of curriculum understanding by these parents, making home support and instruction
reinforcement difficult. Another common attribute in this study was the level of teacher
and parent communication: 96.3% of parents reported never having a home visit, 59.5%
were never called by a teacher at home, 59% were not offered workshops from teachers,
and 36.4% never took part in parent teacher conferences (Epstein, 1986 p.281). Epstein
also discovered that of the respondents, 70% had never participated in the classroom or
on field trips, 70% never helped in school fund-raising, and 88% never assisted in the
library or cafeteria (pg.281).
Mcintyre and Phaneuf (2010) suggested that parents with less education and with
children with developmental disabilities were more likely to have children who would
develop behavior disorders. The link to lower education levels and student behavior
disorders was described by a general lack of parent-student and parent-school interactions
and communications (Mcintyre & Phaneuf, 2010). This lack of follow through,
communication, and interaction created a home and education environment lacking
realistic and meaningful expectations, rewards, and consequences (Mcintyre & Phaneuf,

20
2010). Students developed unaware of what was expected of them or with changing and
unrealistic developmentally inappropriate goals (Mcintyre & Phaneuf, 2010).
Kirk, Lewis-Moss, Nilsen, and Colvin (2010) observed that a parent’s level of
education, credits taken and passed during their own high school experience, dictated
parent expectations of their own children in high school. These parent expectations were
translated into direct communication with school and teachers seeking clarification and
requesting additional resources for their children (Kirk, Lewis-Moss, Nilsen, & Colvin,
2010). Compared to parents with less education, higher academically achieving parents
tended to seek additional input, asked more questions, and made more time available to
their children (Kirk, Lewis-Moss, Nilsen, & Colvin, 2010). In summary, these parents
took a higher interest in their child’s education.
The trend of parent buy-in and educational expectations of excellence was
supported by a study conducted by Chevalier, Harmon, O'Sullivan, and Walker (2010).
Parents with higher incomes and with greater educational achievement displayed higher
educational expectations of their children (Chevalier, Harmon, O'Sullivan, & Walker,
2010). In addition, these parents also sought for clarification and asked for research to
support educational decision-making by teachers (Chevalier, Harmon, O'Sullivan, &
Walker, 2010). This two-way communication supports assertions made by Payne (2005,
2006, 2009) in that communication with parents should be geared differently based on a
parent’s education and SES, altering terminology and providing research to support
decisions for higher achieving parents.
The research suggested that there is a notable connection between a parent’s level
of education and their expectations of education for their children. It is only logical to tie

21
a parent’s educational experience with their willingness to communicate their educational
expectations and concerns with teachers (Payne, 2009). This communication may at
times be pointed and direct and as Payne (2009) pointed out, parents with greater levels
of education sought direct research-based responses to their concerns and questions rather
than informal registry (casual conversation), which is a better tool for parents with less
educational background (Payne, 2009).
Theme 2: Parent Involvement and School-Home Communication.
Fantuzzo, Davis, and Ginsburg (1995) noted that in low-income urban areas the
dropout rates were higher, with the average level of below proficiency for these same
students hovering near 30%. Parent involvement has been a growing solution to this
trend. Teacher mentoring of parents, who then in turn mentor students have yielded some
positive results in these urban settings. Fantuzzo, Davis, and Ginsburg (1995) further
suggested that this parent involvement is helping in closing the gap in achievement from
parent to child, in essence breaking the cycle. This parent mentoring also provides the
language and vocabulary needed to help their own children with homework and to
support curriculum being taught at school.
Mendez (2010) observed an increased level of success achieved by minority
students entering Head Start when parents were included in curriculum and mentored in
what skills were critical for their child to be successful. These skills, although common
sense for some parents, seemed to be lacking in many of the minority parents observed
(Mendez, 2010). In addition to providing the child with essential skills for learning, the
parent-mentoring program also inadvertently strengthened family connections and saw a
greater level of parent contact with the school (Mendez, 2010).

22
Turney (2009) similarly found that parents from immigrant backgrounds often
lacked cultural, educational, and language necessary to fully support or to take active
roles in their children’s education. This cultural disconnect stemmed from the basic
inability to communicate effectively and spontaneously when needed either by the school
to the parent or visa-versa (Turney, 2009). In essence, this lack of communication
created a lack of educational buy-in, forming a cycle of placing little value on education
(Turney, 2009).
When looking at current levels of parent involvement and acknowledging that
involvement is important to educational success, additional emphasis and research is
warranted. This involvement starts with basic school-to-home communication involving
parents in decision-making and education of parents on curriculum (Herrold, O'Donnell,
& Mulligan, 2008). Herrold, O'Donnell, and Mulligan (2008) showed through surveys
conducted by the National Household Education Surveys Program that there was ample
room for school-to-home communication improvement. Fifty-Four percent of parents
with students in grades K-12 said they had received notes or emails specifically about
their own children. Although 91% acknowledge that general communication, such as
newsletters, had been sent home that communication was noted as being trivial. Eighty-
one percent had received communication in the form of progress reports or report cards
about student achievement scores, but had little information prior to those final grades
being sent home or discussed during parent-teacher conferences. In addition, Herrold,
O'Donnell, and Mulligan, (2008) noted a significant drop from elementary parent-teacher
conference attendance percentages (K-6) 91% to 62% in upper grades (7-12).

23
The trend points to less parent involvement and communication as students
progress through school (Tichovolsky, Arnold, & Baker, 2013). Tichovolsky, Arnold,
and Baker (2013) observed that although the research pointed to continued and
significant growth of student achievement for students who received regular and
sufficient parent support, a steady upward level of growth, new research also pointed to
greater levels of achievement if that same support started prior to elementary
school. Preschool involvement of parents in their child’s education, reinforcing basic
concepts, produced students who showed significantly more growth than those students
who only received parent support once elementary started. Tichovolsky, Arnold, and
Baker (2013) noted that this parent involvement, especially for preschool students, had to
be fostered, communication established, and outcomes and curriculum defined in order to
increase emergent academic development.
A similar survey conducted in the United Kingdom by Goodall and Montgomery
(2014) noted similar results. Fifty-one percent of parents surveyed felt they were being
adequately included in their child’s education and the decisions being made about that
education (Peters, Seeds, Goldstein, & Coleman, 2008). Although a number of those
unhappy with the inclusion acknowledged that outside commitments such as work or
social obligations prevented them from taking a more active role. Two-thirds of parents
surveyed wanted to take a more active role in their child’s education, but only 32% said
they regularly helped their children with school homework and 35% extended further to
help in the classroom (Peters, Seeds, Goldstein, & Coleman, 2008). When looking at
communication, 83% of parents felt that school-to-home communication was effective

24
and meaningful and that they, the parents, felt well informed in regards to curriculum and
educational decision-making (Peters, Seeds, Goldstein, & Coleman, 2008).
In order to increase parent support and reinforcement of a child’s education,
Karakus and Savas (2012) proposed eliminating barriers that prevented parent
involvement. In their study, Machen, Wilson, and Notar (2005) provided childcare,
meals, and transportation for parents during school meetings. The results were a 96.5%
attendance rating the first year and 94.5% attendance rating in year two. With this level
of parent turnout the proposition of home support and enhancement of student retention
likewise rose. Payne (2006) also noted that in order to increase parent support and turn
out the school must erase the excuses and barriers that prevent parents from attending
school functions and meetings. Although results tend to vary based on SES, ethnicity,
and parent education, one constant does materialize, that being that parent involvement
does increase student achievement and success (Camilli, Vargas, Ryan, & Barnett, 2010).
Parent involvement correlates directly with a school’s achievement scores as
measured by AYP (Mendez, 2010). Most schools acknowledge that parent support is
important but may lack the means by which to affect positive changes to encourage a
greater parent role, or teachers simply wish to avoid the trouble of including parents
directly in a classroom setting (Herrold, O'Donnell, & Mulligan, 2008). Whatever the
reasons, the ramifications of uninvolved parents are evident and measurable (Peters,
Seeds, Goldstein, & Coleman, 2008).
Subtheme 1: Setting Boundaries for Parent Involvement.
Epstein, Galindo, and Sheldon (2011) cautioned that care must be shown when
encouraging parent support in school functions and curriculum as an overbearing parent

25
may actually create negative feelings within their child and thus negatively affecting his
or her school performance. Although parent involvement is critical for student success
(Epstein, Galindo, & Sheldon, 2011) it must be communicated to parents that their role in
their child’s education is support and their child must be primarily responsible for their
own learning and homework. Epstein’s two studies (1986, 2011) create a Goldie Locks
effect in that too much, or overbearing, support may lead to adverse student achievement,
while too little can lead to similar results. Therefore, a balance must be found and
communicated with parents, and roles must be established.
Shire, Goods, Shih, Distefano, Kaiser, Wright, and Kasari (2014) reported that
many teachers feel that by incorporating parents in their child’s education, taking an
active role, may somehow hinder their ability to serve in the parent role at home. This
perception is created in part due to the lack of discipline, respect and work ethic
displayed by today’s students, typically traits taught at home (Shire, Goods, Shih,
Distefano, Kaiser, Wright, & Kasari, 2014). Turnbull and Turnbull (2014) supported
this notion by suggesting that a child’s development is increased and heightened not by
parent instruction, but rather through continued and consistent family-centered activities.
These family centered activities can be something as simple as meaningful two-way
conversations, modeled behavior, reinforcement of expectations, simulated play, and
combined puzzle and book reading (El Nokali, Bachman, & VoVotruba-Drzal, 2010).
Griffith (1998) found that of the parents he surveyed, 95% viewed school
involvement by parents very important. Griffith (1998) also found that parents with
higher educational expectations of their children also themselves had a greater role in the
school and school activities, while those with lower educational expectations volunteered

26
less. In addition, Leatherdale, Pathammavong, Griffith, Nowatzki, and Manske (2011)
observed that as children continued through school, the level of parent involvement
significantly dropped becoming almost nonexistent in high school. Greater parental
involvement in school activities created a perception amongst parents that their child’s
school was safer, ultimately creating greater support and school buy-in at home
(Leatherdale, Pathammavong, Griffith, Nowatzki, & Manske, 2011).
Although parent involvement is a noted advantage to student achievement
(Arnold, Zeljo, & Doctoroff, 2008), care must be taken in defining clear and consistent
parent volunteer expectations (El Nokali, Bachman, & VoVotruba-Drzal, 2010). An
over-involved parent, although difficult, is simply trying in most cases to assure
maximum benefits for his/her child (Payne, 2006). The intentions are seldom malicious
in nature, although the delivery of those expectations by parents can create feelings of
resentment and frustration by all parties involved (Payne, 2006).
Theme 3: Language Used in Home-School Communication.
Language used in school to parent interactions was often noted as a barrier
between parents and teachers (Payne, 2011). Chu and Wu (2012) found in their studies
of interactions between educators and parents of children with special needs that parent
input and involvement in their children’s education and individual education plan (IEPs)
was crucial for student achievement and success. Chu and Wu (2012) also noted that
minority students, specifically Chinese American students and especially those with
disabilities and language barriers, displayed a lower level of achievement than those from
non-minority cultures. Chu and Wu (2012) explained this lower achievement by
suggesting a lack of meaningful two-way communication between parents and schools.

27
Cultural differences were another notable factor that adversely affected positive
interactions and communication between home and school (Chu & Wu, 2012).
Cheatham, Hart Malian & McDonald (2012) found that although new federal
regulations promote the involvement of parents in special education decision making,
many schools, teachers, and administrators choose to keep that involvement to a
minimum. Stated reasons for this trend by school employees included a lack of
understanding of family cultures or an unwillingness to further investigate behaviors for
possible solutions (Hess, Molina, & Kozleski, 2006). Hess, Molina, and Kozleski, (2006)
also suggested that a perceived lack of educational interest by African American parents
in fact stemmed from a deep-seeded mistrust of the education system and the
professionals within that system. Communication and involvement was the primary
complaint by those parents not choosing to take active roles in school and their children’s
education (Payne, 2011). Hess, Molina, and Kozleski, (2006) also noted that
communication modes used to communicate with families, especially those parents who
were not English first speakers, such as letters, flyers, etc., further alienated parents and
led to a decreased value in education and commitment to children with special needs.
Lawrence (2013) also noted a link between minority students, specifically
Hispanic students, and meaningful communication. This lack of communication
stemmed in many instances from a lack of appropriate resources, both financially and
physically. A deficit of Spanish language textbooks, materials, and bilingual interpreters
made educating and specifically communicating with parents and guardians about the
child’s educational needs and the school’s educational requirements difficult (Smith,
Stern, & Shatrova, 2008). This language barrier also made communicating cultural

28
differences and needs problematic and widened already existing gaps in communication
(Smith, Stern, & Shatrova, 2008). The cost of this breakdown in communication was the
child’s success and education perpetuating a cycle of poor educational experiences
(Payne, 2006).
Petrina, Carter, and Stephenson (2015) noted when interviewing parents of
children with special needs that overall satisfaction with special education services was
not positive. The primary complaint of teachers was a lack of parent involvement either
directly or in the creation of Individual Education Plans (IEPs) (Spann, Kohler, &
Soenksen, 2003). In addition, Spann, Kohler, and Soenksen (2003) noted that parents felt
as if they were not included in changes made to IEPs and often found out indirectly about
those changes. Of those surveyed, 60% of parents reported significant problems with
communication efforts with and between school entities (Spann, Kohler, & Soenksen,
2003). A lack of teacher adaptability was another common complaint amongst parents
interviewed (Petrina, Carter, & Stephenson, 2015). Parents noted that teachers were
unwilling to try new ideas with their special needs children or would not follow through
or communicate about implemented changes which in turn created feelings of frustration
and a further disconnect (Spann, Kohler, & Soenksen, 2003).
Duras, Aleksic-Maslac, and Darrer (2012) suggested that gaps in home-school
communication are not narrowing but rather widening because of language used by
educators (acronyms), students (texting abbreviation and slang), and parents. This
varying language makes common concepts and communication difficult if all parties are
not using the same dialect, or if assumptions are made that acronyms and slang
terminology being used is universally understood by all parties involved with the

29
communication efforts (Duras, Aleksic-Maslac, & Darrer, 2012). When surveyed (Duras,
Aleksic-Maslac, and Darrer, 2012), 60.4% of college students in their first semester
claimed to use slang and/or acronyms in their writing and research, with numbers
increasing to 72.1% for students in their 7th trimester.
Language, its presentation, its wording, its anticipated meaning are all major
components that lead to dissonance amongst all parties involved (Gawronski, 2012). The
Cognitive Dissonance Theory (CDT) originally proposed by Festinger (1957) and
expanded upon by Gawronski (2012) and Veen, Krug, Schooler, and Carter (2009),
dissected communication and noted the human tendency to avoid adverse situations
seeking to maintain or return to a state of consonance. This dissonance can be created by
cultural disparities (Chu & Wu, 2012), terminology misapprehensions through the use of
educational jargon or acronyms (Payne, 2006), or the misuse of casual or formal registry
in communicating (Payne, 2009). Care must therefore be taken when communicating
with parents in an education setting to avoid communication dissonance (Gawronski,
2012).
Theme 4: Socioeconomic Status (SES) and Home-School Communication.
When looking at factors that influence student achievement, parent involvement
in their child’s education seems to be an accepted facet. In addition, the SES of a family
also plays a roll in school perception and the importance of education as deemed by
families (Payne, 2011). Parent involvement has to start at school, by the school, and be
adaptable to parents from all SES and educational levels (Payne, 2009). Payne (2009)
classified parents into seven distinctive subgroups: 1. career-oriented/too busy to attend
school activities, 2. very involved in school activities, 3. single parents working two

30
jobs/too busy to attend, 4. immigrant parents with language issues, 5. parents with
overwhelming personal issues, such as addiction, illness, incarceration, evading the law,
6. surrogate parents: foster parents, grandparents, etc., 7. children who, in effect are their
own parents, they no longer have involved parents or guardians.
By accepting that each school will have a unique and varied parent population, the
need for multiple modes of communication becomes critical. Payne (2006) observed that
of the seven groups, a lack of parent communication but increase in student discipline
would result the majority of the time from subgroups 5-7. According to Payne (2005),
17. 6% of U.S. families were living in poverty. With SES playing a significant role in
home communication and student achievement, the need for greater diversity in
communication becomes apparent. Payne (2009) further noted a marked difference in
communication with lower SES students, explaining that formal registry of language
often proved ineffective when communicating with parents. Payne (2005) found that
casual registry a less formal means of communication, increased student retention within
students from low SES. This trend most assuredly translates to parent communication
with the parents of these low SES students, as the mode of communication used by the
child is most likely used at home (Payne, 2006). Payne (2005) also stressed the
difference in value structure for those students and parents living in poverty. Although
education is valued, it is as Payne (2006) stated “revered as abstract and not reality”
amongst lower SES, while middle-class view education as “crucial for climbing the
success ladder and making money”, suggesting that again communication has to be
adaptable with parents from different SES (p. 42-43).

31
Dogan and Sezer (2010) found in their research that teachers interacting with and
teaching to students from low SES backgrounds significantly altered their instruction.
Instruction was often more casual, face-to-face, and relied on more cooperative activities.
In addition, Dogan and Sezer (2010) also observed that the instructional trends used by
these teachers carried over into interactions with fellow educators. Teachers working
with other teachers and administrators used collaboration and informal registry (casual
conversation) frequently. Dogan and Sezer (2010) noted that teachers instructing
students from middle to higher SES often used a more formal register (proper English
steeped with higher vocabulary) and a greater level of independent work for instruction.
Fan, Williams, and Wolters (2012) observed parents of higher SES were more
involved in their children’s education. In addition, Sui-Chu and Willms (1996) found
that parents’ lack of involvement coupled with a lower SES produced a 7% drop in
student achievement. Sui-Chu and Willms (1996) reported that students who attended a
higher SES school, but who themselves were from lower SES, scored higher on
achievement tests. Five variables may account for this higher scoring: peer effects,
teachers’ expectations, school discipline, parent involvement, and material availability
(Fan, Williams, & Wolters ,2012).
Kirk, Lewis-Moss, Nilsen, and Colvin (2010) noted that although efforts have
been made to erase the gap of achievement and college graduation rates for students from
lower SES, there is still a 30% gap noted between students from low SES and students
from higher SES. Parent expectations, involvement, understanding of curriculum, and
communication with schools are all suggested factors that impact and create this 30%
(Kirk, Lewis-Moss, Nilsen, & Colvin, 2010).

32
Lippman, Guzman, Keith, Kinukawa, Shwalb, Tice, and Mulligan (2008)
discovered similar findings in parent expectations in their survey of families and college
expectations. Fifty-one percent of parents with a household income of $25,000 expected
their children graduate college while those $25,001-$50,000 had a 56% graduation rate,
$50,001-$75,000 jumped to 70%. Clearly there is a connection between a family’s SES
and their expectations and interpretation on the importance education plays in their
children’s lives (Lippman, Guzman, Keith, Kinukawa, Shwalb, Tice, & Mulligan, 2008).
Another notable trend suggested by Lippman, Guzman, Keith, Kinukawa, Shwalb, Tice.
and Mulligan (2008) was that of those parents who did graduate college with at least a
bachelor’s degree, the graduation rate for their children jumped to 88%.
SES, as suggested by a review of literature, is a notable component of not only
educational success, but communication as well. A family besieged with paying basic
necessities, such as rent or mortgages, utilities, and food may not deem the education of
their children or communication with teachers through emails, phone calls, and
conferences a priority (Payne, 2011). In addition, long work hours or odd hours of
employment may also make communication difficult with parents from low SES (Payne
& Slocumb, 2011). Generational poverty is a cycle that if not broken through meaningful
communication will continue, maintaining a lack of educational importance (Payne &
Slocumb, 2011). Payne (2009) noted that teachers must know their audience, their
parents, their backgrounds, their needs, and expectations altering and adapting to each
and every situation. The needs of a family from a low SES background must be
acknowledged as being different from a family from middle or upper class status, and the

33
change implemented with the student and parents must be built on a foundation of trust
and commitment while not restricting the needs of the family (Payne & Slocumb, 2011).
Theme 5: Modes of Home-School Communication.
Baker (2014) suggested that in order for positive change, that is increased student
achievement and active communication to take place, and for buy-in to exist, several
things must first happen. First, schools must know their history, that is, what has worked
in the past, what has made the school successful, and what has not been effective (York-
Barr, Sommers, Ghere, & Montie, 2001). Second, include the community and its experts
in the change (York-Barr, Sommers, Ghere, & Montie, 2001) as many of the experts may
be parents of students who attend the school. Including them in school change only
encourages parent communication and parent/community support (Baker, 2014).
Danielson (2006) stressed the importance of creating a healthy home-school
relation, offering examples of how the teacher could include parents in the curriculum
being taught. For example, encouraging students to learn about the 1960’s by
interviewing their parents or grandparents. Danielson (2006) maintained that by sharing,
stressing, and explaining social and mental development, parents might take greater
interest in their child’s education.
Price (2008) conceded that the need for parent input, communication, and support
was crucial for high achieving schools, but in addition, the need for community support
and buy-in was equally important. Price (2008) suggested that all changes to encourage
more involvement must be implemented slowly and should start with parent and
community members who have the reputation as caring for children and actively being

34
involved. Next with a basis of support the push for expanded communication and
inclusion could continue creating a rich and braced education entity (Price, 2008).
The mode by which schools communicate can affect the level and quality of
parent-school communication (Thompson, 2007). Jennings and Wartella (2004)
suggested that the information age and easy access to the Internet and use of emails, in
addition to classroom and school websites, has made real-time communication possible
between schools and parents. This fact is supported by the findings of Thompson (2007)
who also proposed and advocated for the use of technology in building and maintaining
school and parent communication. Providing instant communication through digital
transference of information, and by answering question nearly real-time through the use
of emails and other technologies, technology has created the potential to link parents with
schools (Thompson, 2007).
The modes by which teachers communicate were directly linked to a teacher’s
pedagogy in regards to technology (Chai, Koh, Tsai, & Tan, 2011). Chai, Koh, Tsai, and
Tan (2011) suggested that if an educator is unfamiliar with various means of technology
then the utilization of that technology will not occur. Similar to the CDT (Gawronski,
2012), an individual who felt anxiety from working with an unfamiliar piece of
technology will naturally avoid future turmoil, seeking instead consonance. Chai, Koh,
Tsai, and Tan (2011) proposed that teacher surveying/assessments and trainings were
critical to provide not only meaningful trainings but also to provide the materials
necessary for implementation. If teachers are expected to communicate using various
modes to deliver communication, it is important that schema is provided in the form of
professional development to avoid dissonance and resistance to the new technology

35
(Chai, Koh, Tsai, & Tan, 2011). A teacher asked to build and maintain a website with
pertinent classroom and school information must be walked through the process of
maintenance and creation rather than assigned the task (Chai, Koh, Tsai, & Tan, 2011).
This change must come at a reasonable pace with follow-up trainings provided (Chai,
Koh, Tsai, & Tan, 2011).
Kim, Coutts, Holmes, Sheridan, Ransom, Sjuts, and Rispoli (2012) observed in
their research on parent involvement, that a lack of consistent communication was one
facet that contributed to low parent involvement ratings. In addition to inconsistent
communication, it was noted that communication tended to be unilateral and was not
adapted to various ethnic, racial, or SES populations (Kim, Coutts, Holmes, Sheridan,
Ransom, Sjuts, & Rispoli, 2012). This unilateral communication alienated parents who
might discover messages were sent that they did not receive, as it created feelings of
isolation amongst these parents (Kim, Coutts, Holmes, Sheridan, Ransom, Sjuts, &
Rispoli, 2012). If those same school-to-home communications were to be sent using
multifaceted methods, including hard copies, phone calls, emails, text messages,
Facebook, etc., greater percentages of parent communication would likely result (Kim,
Coutts, Holmes, Sheridan, Ransom, Sjuts, & Rispoli, 2012).
Lewis (2002), while supporting electronic parent communication, warned about
the propensity of parent over-involvement. In addition, Jackson and Hooff (2012)
addressed the inclination of miscommunication occurring from the use electronic
communication. Misinterpretations, misunderstanding of humor, cultural bias, and lack
of interpersonal interaction are all possible drawbacks of real-time electronic
communication (Jackson & Hooff, 2012). Abstract concepts and personal feelings

36
should not be expressed using electronic communication with parents, as a face-to-face
approach would be most applicable and less likely to spur miscommunication (Walther,
1992).
Muscott, Szczesiul, Berk, Staub, Hoover, and Perry-Chisholm (2008) attempted to
identify possible barriers that hinder effective parent-school communication. When
surveyed, parents unanimously felt teachers were caring and dedicated to their job and to
the children they taught. When asked about taking on a leadership, or as Sousa, Luze,
and Huges-Belding (2014) noted engagement in decision-making roles in their child’s
own education, the comfort level amongst parents and teachers was relatively low.
Although NCLB legislation mandates the incorporation of family involvement in
educational decision making, Sousa, Luze, and Huges-Belding (2014) suggested schools,
administrators, and teachers involved parents very little in the educational decision
making process. In addition, Muscott, Szczesiul, Berk, Staub, Hoover, and Perry-
Chisholm (2008) noted a continuing trend in school-home communication. Parents and
families of poverty were included in and participated less in school functions, parent
teacher conferences, and volunteer work, in essence relying solely on schools to provide
all facets of education for their children.
Todd, Campbell, Meyer, and Horner (2008) described the positive impact parent
support and involvement can have on a child’s behavior in school by studying four
elementary aged children who were labeled at-risk and whom with discipline was a
problem. Parents were included in decision-making, rule setting at school, and
reinforcement of consequences at home for school behavior, showing parent involvement
can and does impact student success at school (Spear, Strickland-Cohen, Romer, &

37
Albin, 2013). If the inclusion of parents in discipline issues showed a marked and
positive outcome it is only reasonable to assume that parent inclusion of educational
decision-making would likewise show beneficial results (Spear, Strickland-Cohen,
Romer, & Albin, 2013).
The way in which teachers implement communication must be adaptable in order
to reach the greatest number of individual parents (Price, 2008). To assume that every
parent will read a hard copy newsletter, email, text, or will view a teacher website is to
invite failure if utilized individually and holistically (Todd, Campbell, Meyer, & Horner,
2008). Multiple facets to relay the same information is most likely to reach the greatest
number of parents (Price, 2008). Consistency in communicational modes must also be
maintained (Payne, 2009), for if a parent attempts to retrieve relevant information once
and a website that is not maintained, or email or text is not responded to, the likelihood of
repeat communication is doubtful (Payne, 2009).
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Gawronski (2012) described Cognitive Dissonance as the avoidance of
uncomfortable, misunderstood, or undesirable communication. Similar to music
dissonance in which wrong or out of sequence notes elicit an adverse reaction, the same
reaction has been described in regards to communication (Gawronski, 2012). The
previous components of this literature review note possible areas according to research,
which ultimately fit into the Cognitive Dissonance Theory. Whether it be the over-
utilization of a particular mode, frequency of communication, or the language and
verbiage used, the cognitive dissonance denotes that care must be taken when
communicating (Gawornski, 2012).

38
Kenworthy, Miller, Collins, Read, and Earleywine, (2011), suggested that a
possible foundation of Cognitive Dissonance lies in an individual’s perception of the
intention of communication. For instance, when an individual taking part in
communication feels that induced compliance, insufficient justification, a lack of freedom
of choice, selective exposure, or disconfirmed expectancies are proposed, the likelihood
of a disconnect, of dissonance, increases (Kenworthy, Miller, Collins, Read, &
Earleywine, 2011). In addition, Kenworthy, Miller, Collins, Read and Earleywine
(2011), proposed that the Cognitive Dissonance might result from a feeling of guilt
stemming from a lack of interest, understanding, or concern for what is being
communicated. Kenworthy, Miller, Collins, Read, and Earleywine (2011), further
suggested that when linked and aligned with the Cognitive Dissonance theory, the Guilt
Aversion Theory aid in explaining why the dissonance might be occurring.
The role of topic importance in regards to the level of dissonance was another
facet of the Cognitive Dissonance Theory, according to Wakslak (2012). Dissonance in
communication decreases if the importance of the topic being communicated was
expressed and relayed to the target individual (Wakslak, 2012). Wakslak (2012) further
noted that vocal intonation, body language, and verbiage were further critical components
of communication that must be noted to avoid communication dissonance, but raised the
subject matter and perceived importance of that conversation to top tier priority. In
essence, if both parties can be convinced that the subject is of critical concern then
dissonance diminishes.
Cheng and Hsu (2012) found in their study of Taiwanese students that cognitive
dissonance was dramatically decreased if students felt they had a role or felt responsible

39
for the eventual outcome. For instance, business students who were presented all
possible outcomes of their course work, the pros and cons of certain assignments,
displayed a far greater propensity for completion than those given one assignment at a
time. This long-term approach allowed students to plan ahead and use the timeline as a
goal sheet, checking of each assignment as they worked towards the end. Those students
given one assignment at a time were never aware of the starting nor ending point and thus
experienced dissonance and performed markedly worse (Cheng & Hsu, 2012).
Kim (2011) suggested that although the Cognitive Dissonance Theory has been
applied to consumers in a service industry to explain lackluster business, it has rarely
been applied to employees serving the customers. Kim (2011) noted that word of mouth
and the perceptions by servers and the job they were doing either increased dissonance (if
word of mouth was negative) or decreased dissonance (if word of mouth was positive).
In essence, if employees committed and working hard felt like their efforts were
underappreciated, then the likelihood of cognitive dissonance increased (Kim, 2011).
This would be very applicable to a school setting where teachers feeling underappreciated
for their work with a struggling individual or with a difficult student may experience
dissonance or a lack of interest, ultimately stifling future effort and communication.
Murray, Wood, and Lilienfeld (2012) noted in their study that a person’s
psychopathic traits play an important role in the level and propensity for an individual to
experience cognitive dissonance during communication. For instance, an individual with
low psychopathic traits experiences higher levels of cognitive dissonance if they felt the
conversation was not relevant or if the message presented lacked sincerity, clarity, or
honesty. An individual with high psychopathic traits experienced lower levels of

40
cognitive dissonance under the same circumstances (Murray, Wood, & Lilienfeld, 2012).
Honesty of communication was a key and linking factor in this study, and an individual’s
verbal and nonverbal cues account greatly for the formation of perceptions. Linked with
an individual’s psychopathic traits these perceptions establish the level of dissonance
experienced.
Voisin and Fointiat (2013) noted that when individuals interpret or perceive
discrepancies in communication, dissonance often occurs. If, for instance, a parent
communicating with a school feels the message is in contrast to previous communication,
guidelines, policies, or educational practice the likelihood of dissonance rises, according
to Voisin and Fointiat (2013). It is therefore important to document communication in
order to maintain a consistency in future communication that ultimately will reduce the
tendency for cognitive dissonance (Voisin & Fointiat, 2013). Linenberger and Bretz
(2012) observed that when communicating with students dissonance increased when the
number of conversations
Theme 7: Guilt Aversion Theory
Similar to the Cognitive Dissonance Theory originally proposed by Festinger
(1962) and expanded upon by Gawronski (2012), the Guilt Aversion Theory explains a
disconnect, or avoidance of a situation or communication from a seeded feeling of guilt
(Battigalli, Charness, & Dufwenberg 2013). For parents from low socioeconomic status,
moderate to low educational backgrounds, or who lack of time to commit to their
children and their education this theory might be used to further explain the avoidance of
school to home communication. Battigalli, Charness, and Dufwenberg (2013) suggested
that an individual not understanding a conversation might feel embarrassed/guilty about

41
the disconnect they experienced, and either completely avoid the conversation or work to
end it as quickly as possible by mindlessly agreeing. A consistent result of the Guilt
Aversion Theory is a lack of follow through, and supported commitment in which a
participant previously expressed. Not responding to phone calls, emails, or not showing
for meetings are common occurrences linked to the Guilt Aversion Theory.
Chang, Smith, Dufwenberg, and Sanfey (2011) in their study of guilt aversion
noted that individuals will commit even when in disagreement to a topic if they are made
to feel guilty either intentionally or not, but as Battigalli, Charness, and Dufwenberg
(2013) noted, display a dismal percentage of follow through. In essence, whether
intentional or not, parents feeling guilty because their child is not proficient in a subject
or subjects may choose instead to avoid contact with a school. This avoidance according
to Battigalli, Charness, and Dufwenberg (2013) occurs because parents know they either
do not have the time, resources, or understanding of concepts to help their child outside
of a school setting.
This theory is relevant to note and aid in the formation of focus groups and focus
group questioning, as initial perceived meaningful communication between parents and
school with a lack of follow through could be a result of dissonance and/or parents
experiencing guilt for their children not being successful in the school setting.
Methodology
In general terms, nearly all of the empirical research utilized in this literature
review was qualitative in nature. Creswell (2013) noted potential difficulties associated
with conducting quantitative research as communication is finite and conclusions can be
difficult to make with opinions and perceptions. Thus, as Creswell (2013) suggested, the

42
utilization of a qualitative approach is most appropriate, as the qualitative methodology is
better suited to explore and search for themes and patterns. This assertion is supported by
the overall methodology utilized by researchers when working with individuals and their
perceptions of communication (Yin, 2009). In conjunction with the accepted research
methodology, this study will emulate that outline and likewise take a qualitative
approach.
Instrumentation
With qualitative methodology, a case study will be most applicable, as this study
will research questions of how or why (Yin, 2009). The research for this study will be
conducted in small focus groups with direct questioning. All questioning will be video
recorded with participant permission. In addition to verbal responses, nonverbal cues
may be noted and delineated as well. The focus group allows for follow-up questions to
occur as they may appear, and the requesting of additional information and responses, as
Creswell noted (2013).
Summary
The concept of communication is not simplistic in nature. With many varying
aspects and subtle nuances, it is a difficult subject to research. Through the creation of
this literature review however, identifiable themes have been explored, providing an
outline for research. This literature review will be used to identify common premises,
barriers, and accomplishments in regards to communication efforts at Sunset Elementary
between teachers and parents. Rather than simply observing that communication is
effective or needs enhancement, communication can be evaluated and categorized by the

43
topics researched and discussed in this literature review and potentially applied to the
Cognitive Dissonance Theory.
With previous studies focused on the importance of parent involvement, linking
that involvement to student achievement with further studies and additional research is
warranted. When attempting to understand links between socioeconomic status and
student achievements, a gap becomes evident when trying to identify the current level of
communication between schools and parents and the importance it plays in student
achievement. Previous studies placed great importance on parent involvement, but this
involvement must start with communication. Payne (2006) has suggested that
communication must be adaptable and change not only with each parent/student, but also
to the community in which you live. This adaptation requires that initial communication
and trust be established with both parents and students by schools as initial
communication will serve as a foundational basis for all future communication.
The common themes of this dissertation will show that SES plays a role in parent
perception of schools and the role education plays in a student’s ultimate success (Payne,
2009). Communication with parents of special education students is inconsistent and
parent satisfaction ratings tend to be low (Hess, Molina, & Kozleski, 2006).
Communication with culturally diverse families by schools is lacking and inconsistent
with language barriers a notable factor (Chu & Wu, 2012). Communication with parents
must be adaptable to the SES of parents and parent personalities (Payne, 2009).
Greater parent support and buy-in of school activities and curriculum directly
impacts student achievement in school (Price, 2008).

44
Parent mentoring by teachers in regards to educational outcomes and instruction
methodologies can lead to greater home involvement and better achievement scores
(Price, 2008) while eliminating possible feelings of guilt which, as noted by Battigalli,
Charness, and Dufwenberg (2013), can hinder communication and follow through.
School/home communication drops as students progress in school, with significant drops
occurring in middle school and beyond (Zeljo & Doctoroff, 2008). Parents, when
uncomfortable with communication, will experience cognitive dissonance and avoid
further communication (Gawronski, 2012). Parents or teachers who feel guilty about
aspects of their children’s education or their commitment or time allotment will
experience guilt and avoid communication Specific research of effective and negative
home/school communication are lacking in past studies (Battigalli, Charness, &
Dufwenberg 2013).

45
Chapter 3: Methodology
Introduction
Students and their parents within a community are diverse. They are unique
individuals due to their schema, interests, fears, culture, and their socioeconomic
backgrounds. These same diverse individuals/students enter the halls of schools each
morning bringing with them unique expectations based on what they deem as important
for life and in many cases survival (Payne, 2009). This diversity must first be understood
before it can be adapted to, with certain trends identified and delineated. Payne (2009)
noted that students from low SES circumstances often had difficulty and regularly tested
lower than students from high SES. This trend is telling and warrants additional
emphasis and study. In order to understand this phenomenon, underlying factors must
first be identified.
This qualitative case study will explore one possible factor that might play a part
in this discrepancy, school-home communication. This study will identify factors
responsible for cognitive dissonance in school-to-home communication (terminology,
educational jargon and acronyms), modes of communication (paper, electronic, verbal),
and frequency of communication. The results will further the understanding of school-to-
home communication and might be the catalyst for additional studies.
Statement of the Problem
With poor parent support and a lack of parent attendance at school sponsored
functions, it is not known how effective current communication efforts are between
parents and teachers, and specifically what factors impact that communication. Currently

46
with declining test scores (Leinwand, Noll, & Pollock, 2005), blame has been placed on
the public education system, its teachers, administrators, and the curriculum being
taught. School districts, teachers, and administrators point to the implementation of No
Child Left Behind (NCLB) and the restriction it creates, as Pederson (2007)
suggested. Studies have delineated the difference in achievement of students according
to their parents’ Socioeconomic Status (SES) (Ewijk & Sleegers, 2010, Payne, 2005,
2006, 2009, Dogan & Sezer, 2010), modes of communication (York-Barr, Sommers,
Ghere, & Montie, 2001, Danielson, 2006, Price, 2008, & Tompson, 2007), and language
used to communicate with students and parents (Payne 2009, Chu & Wu 2012 and Hess,
Molina, & Kozleski 2006), but have failed to assess directly how these factors might be
impacting current communication between schools and parents. This disconnect might
lead to future studies researching school-to-home communication, and may highlight
possible links with student achievement.
ResearchQuestion(s) or Hypotheses
Language, as noted by Gawronski (2012), can relay messages or create confusion,
discomfort, and even dissonance. The Cognitive Dissonance Theory explains this
disconnect as the avoidance of communication that is not understood, held in common, or
is offensive in nature (Gawronski, 2012). By applying this theory to an educational
setting and evaluating current communication taking place, several questions arise. First,
what role does educational language play in school-home communication within an
elementary school setting? Second, how is educational terminology used in school-home
communication perceived within an elementary school setting? Finally, how do

47
educational acronyms alter perceptions of school-home communication within an
elementary school setting?
In addition to possible effects of language usage/acronyms, the amount of
communication and means by which that communication is made available and accessed
might likewise play a part in parents/teachers perceptions of communication. Thus,
further additional questions and subsequent sub-questions will aid in exploring the
phenomenon of communication frequency and modes of communication. First, what
roles do frequency and mode of communication play in communication at an elementary
school? Second, how is frequency of communication perceived amongst parents and
teachers at an elementary school? Finally, how efficient and accessible are current
communication efforts for parents at an elementary school?
A case study will be utilized in order to answer this studies research questions as
how or why is being asked of participants (Yin, 2009). The sources of data, the
instrument, for this study will be collected utilizing several focus groups. Each
respective group (parents; k-1, 2-3, 4-5 and teachers; k-1, 2-3, 4-5) will be interviewed,
video recorded, and responses passed through two cycles of qualitative coding (emotion,
and pattern).
The combination of these research questions will create a clear and precise picture
of current school-to-home communication within an elementary school. The results
gleaned from this study will be useful in furthering the body of knowledge of school-to-
home communication as a whole and might serve as a basis for future studies of greater
breadth and depth.

48
ResearchMethodology
The utilization of a qualitative case study methodology is most appropriate
specifically because this study will focus on one elementary school within a rural county
in Wyoming as a representative sample (Saldana, 2009). Since Sunset Elementary is
similar to the other three Cody, Wyoming elementary schools in size and student
makeup, the selection of this one elementary will serve as an appropriate sample size.
Because this study will focus on individual’s perceptions of a phenomenon,
communication, the qualitative case study further fits for the purpose of this study
(Saldana, 2009).
Teacher and parent focus groups will be created, concentrating on the exploration
and identification of teacher/parent perceptions of communication modes (the means by
which information is exchanged from school to home), frequency (the timeliness,
duration, and regularity of communication), and language (the verbiage used to express
ideas, concerns, praises, and passing of school or parent information between school and
home). The corresponding results will be coded, looking for facets that create
communication dissonance.
The anticipated outcome from this study will be a notable and documentable
inconsistency in methods, modes, and language used in school-to-home communication
as viewed by parents. Teacher perceptions of communication are anticipated to show
positive and meaningful modes, methods, and language used in communicating with
parents. This anticipated disconnect between teacher and parent perceptions will show a
need to strengthen current communication, avoiding communication dissonance and
altering communication for each individual parent, as suggested by Payne (2009).

49
Common practices and traits for both positively and negatively perceived communication
will be recorded and trends noted, providing a potential framework that may be used by
not only other schools to increase effective communication efforts, but also other
organizational entities where positive two-way communication is crucial.
ResearchDesign
Since all responses will be the opinions of individuals, distinctive as altered by
background, SES, education of each individual, and prior personal and professional
experience, the qualitative methodology is most aligned, as noted by Saldana (2009). A
case study research design will be utilized to study the phenomenon of parent and teacher
communication at Sunset Elementary in Cody, Wyoming. This design allows for a
specific site to be studied in detail, observing and interacting between individuals from
that specific site in an effort towards answering and understanding this study’s research
questions (Creswell, 2013).
A case study is most applicable when questions of why or how are being queried
(Yin, 2009). Since this dissertation will study perceptions, frequency, modes and
language impact on communication within a specific entity, this design is most applicable
(Yin, 2009). Yin (2009) further noted that when the phenomenon being studied is outside
the control of the researcher, or/and if the topic is current and contemporary, it is best
suited for a case study rather than other social science designs. The phenomenon of
communication at Sunset Elementary requires an extensive and committed effort to
understand, further evidence that a case study research design is most advantageous (Yin,
2009). In order to truly understand the phenomenon of communication at Sunset the

50
structure and current communication cannot be altered by any research. A case study
requires that observations be neutral and non-invasive in nature to observe small group
and organizational behavior and interactions (Yin, 2009).
Further, this research design allows for small focus groups to be studied,
observed, and questioned. These small focus groups, kindergarten through 5th grade
parents and teachers, will serve as a representative sample size (twenty to thirty
individuals) allowing for in-depth questioning to occur (Yin, 2009). The participant
responses will be coded and studied looking for trends and examples of Cognitive
Dissonance.
Population and Sample Selection
This study will be conducted in a metropolitan area in Wyoming with a
population of nearly 10,000 and a median household income of $41,532 (Onboard
Informatics, 2013). Primarily a tourist town with much seasonal employment, this
community’s other major employment sectors include education, oil and gas, mining,
manufacturing and medical (Onboard Informatics, 2013). For this case study, this
elementary was selected as its 325 students (Onboard Informatics, 2013) is a general and
average representation of the other two elementary schools in Wyoming, both in student
population and free and reduced lunch percentages. The Elementary school used in this
study has a free and reduced lunch population standing at 41%, making it a Title-One
school that receives federal funding to supplement student Tier Two interventions.
Site authorization for this study will be secured from the current principal of
Sunset Elementary for this study, and a synopsis of the study provided. The current

51
Grand Canyon University site authorization form will be utilized and signed granting
permission to study at this school. All information, participant identities, and materials
for this study will follow confidentiality protocol and will be kept under lock and key at
all times. In order to be considered for participation in this study, parents and teachers
must currently have a child enrolled or must be a teacher at Sunset Elementary. Finally,
participants of this study must be full-time residents of Cody, Wyoming, in order to serve
as appropriate representatives of Sunset Elementary.
Parent and teachers will first be recruited to participate in this study on a
volunteer basis. This recruitment process will occur through the utilization of the
school’s all call system, in addition to the distribution of invitations to participate
documents being sent home with students in their weekly newsletters. of In order to be
considered parents must currently have a student attending the elementary school.
Teachers likewise must be current teachers with a minimum of three years teaching
experience at the school. This three requirement for teachers will allow for great
experience in regards to the current communication process..
Using the elementary (parents and staff), the phenomenon of school-to-home
communication will be studied. Focus groups will be created and delineated by parents
and teachers. Group sampling size will be limited to 10 teacher and 10 parents. This
sampling size will fit the convenience model proposed by Sedgwick (2013), as
participants were selected by their willingness to participate and the convenience of their
location in regards to this study.
Participants will not be compensated for their participation in this study but will
be provided with a complete synopsis of the study, and allowed to ask questions about the

52
study prior to questioning taking place. In addition, participants will be required to sign a
consent form for the study. This consent form will outline the study and provide
assurances for their anonymity. This study will be relegated to one geographic location,
Cody, Wyoming, as time and financial constraints make expansion unrealistic.
Sources of Data
This case study will utilize two groups (one parent and one teacher) with 10
participants in each respective group. These focus groups will allow for questioning and
the discussion of factors that impact the perceptions of school/home communication or
cause cognitive dissonance. A series of qualitative questions will be asked during each
focus group concerning communication, modes and methods of communication,
frequency of communication, and language used during communication. These questions
will be open-ended in nature, allowing for additional questions and comments that may
arise as responses are given. Participant responses will be video recorded for later
delineation, and passed through first cycle emotion coding and second cycle pattern
coding. This will be the data used to answer the problem statement and subsequent
research sub-questions.
The groups will be filmed for ease of later transcription and to observe body
language and vocal intonation during participant response, which Payne (2009) noted are
relevant and meaning aspects of communication and should be considered. It will be
stressed that the video taping of focus groups will only be used in the coding process and
for the purpose of this research study and will be protected and safely stored to protect
participant identities.

53
Upon completion of the focus group session, participants will be asked to
complete a short online survey that will focus on various components of communication
currently taking place including satisfaction (Likert scale) and questions searching for
cognitive dissonance. Additionally, previously conducted parent satisfaction surveys
conducted by this school will be used as a source of data and will aid in the search for
trends in communication.
Validity
The purpose of this qualitative study is to understand the phenomenon of parent
and teacher communication at an elementary school in Wyoming. Validity is paramount
in the recording, coding and reporting of qualitative findings. Quality, rigor, and
trustworthiness of study and data will be supported through a triangulation of participant
responses for each respective and separate focus group (teachers and parents)(Creswell,
2013).
Each respective group will include ten individuals in for consistency and validity.
Data triangulation is critical to establish validity in a qualitative case study, as Guion,
Diehl, and McDonald (2013) noted, as it establishes multiple opportunities for
stakeholders (in this study, teachers and parents) to offer data/responses to questioning
through focus groups and surveys. In addition, the coding process add to this study’s
validity as an appropriate sample will serve as a representative of this elementary
school’s total population (Guion, Diehl, & McDonald, 2013). Common trends in
participant responses will be noted/delineated using first and second cycle coding
methodologies when consistent throughout each individual focus group or throughout all

54
groups (Creswell, 2013). Unique response, those unrelated to other responses and
occurring only once will be treated as outliers, noted, but will not be included in second
pass coding.
Qualitative recording, transcription, and coding software MAXqda, will be
utilized in this study. The use of the MAXqda program furthers the validity of this study
as information will be organized and coded in a meaningful and consistent qualitative
method. MAXqda will also aid in the formulation of a codebook for future researchers or
scholars to use in replication, delineation, or reviewing of this study.
Reliability
Reliability of this study will be achieved by a triangulation of date. Member
checking, that is participants checking responses (feedback from participants of study and
questioner parroting answers for clarification during questioning), focus groups video
recorded for precise delineation of responses, and data delineated by qualitative first and
second cycle coding (Creswell, 2013). By allowing participants to review data and
responses, miscommunication, or additional clarifications, can be suggested to clarify or
adjust responses (Simon, 2011). Previously school conducted surveys focused on parent
satisfaction, with a component specifically targeting communication, will be delineated
and utilized in conjunction with focus group responses and online surveys which
participants can complete following their focus group participation. Expert review
(dissertation chair, content chair, and methodology chair) will aid in the reliability as
facets of this study, such as research questions, coding, and tabulation will be under
constant review and scrutiny by these chairs.

jezriah_j__krubeck_proposal_AQR

jezriah_j__krubeck_proposal_AQR

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (19)

Viewers also liked

Viewers also liked (18)

Similar to jezriah_j__krubeck_proposal_AQR

Similar to jezriah_j__krubeck_proposal_AQR (20)

jezriah_j__krubeck_proposal_AQR