4. JOB DESIGN
The act of specifying the contents of and methods of jobs.
What? Who? How? Where?
Ergonomics – Incorporation of human factors in the design of
the workplace
(design of equipment, work methods and overall design of
the work environment)
5. Factors that Affect Job Design
Workers and managers consultation
Managerial support
Written record establishment
Elements
Efficiency school – systematic and logical
Behavioral school- satisfaction of wants and needs
6. SPECIALIZATION
Work that concentrates on some aspect of product or service
Advantages
For management: For labor
1. Simplifies training 1. Low education and skill requirements
2. High productivity 2. Minimum responsibilities
3. Low wage cost 3. Little mental effort
Disadvatanges
1. Difficult 1. Monotonous work
2. Worker dissatisfaction, possibly 2. Limited opportunities for advancement
resulting in absenteeism, high turnover, 3. Little control over work
disruptive tactics, poor attention to 4. Little opportunity for sel-fulfillment
quality
7. BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES
TO JOB DESIGN
Job Enlargement – Giving a worker a larger position of the
total task
Job Rotation – Workers periodically exchange jobs
Job Enrichment – Increasing responsibility for planning and
coordination tasks, by vertical loading.
Increase the motivational power of jobs by increasing worker
satisfaction through improvement in the quality of work life
8. MOTIVATION
Key factor in many aspects of work life
Influence quality and productivity
Contributes to the work environment
Trust – influences motivation, productivity and employee-
management relations
9. Why do people work?
Compensation
Socialization
Self-actualization
Status
Physiological aspects of work
Sense of purpose and accomplishment
10. TEAMS
Short-term team
Long-term team
Self-directed teams (self-managed teams)- designed to achieve
higher level of teamwork and employee involvement. Althoug
11. Successful Team Building Requirements
1. Clearly stated and commonly held vision and goals
2. Talent and skills required to meet goals
3. Clear understanding of team members’ roles and functions
4. Efficient and shared understanding of procedures and norms
5. Effective and skilled interpersonal relations
6. A system of reinforcement and celebration
7. Clear understanding of the team’s relationship to the greater
organization
13. METHOD ANALYSIS
Analyzing how a job is done
Can be a good source of productivity improvements
DIFFERENT SOURCES
1. Changes in tools and equipment.
2. Changes in product design or introduction of new products
3. Changes in materials or procedures
4. Government regulations or contractual agreements
5. Other factors (e.g., accidents, quality problems)
14. New job – establish a method
Existing job – analysts observe and improve
15. Procedure in Method Analysis
1. Identify the operation to be studied and gather facts about
tools, equipment, materials etc.
2. (existing jobs) job discussion with operator and supervisor
for input
3. (existing jobs) Study and document the present method
using process charts. (new jobs) develop charts based on
info about activities involved.
16. Procedure in Method Analysis
1. Analyze the job
2. Propose new methods
3. Install new methods
4. Follow up implementation to assure that improvements
have been achieved
17. Selecting an Operation to Study
GUIDELINES FOR SELECTING A JOB; Jobs that…
1. Have a high labor content
2. Are done frequently
3. Are unsafe, tiring, unpleasant and/ore noisy
4. Are designated as problems
18. Documenting the Current Method
Charts, graphs and verbal descriptions of the way job is being
performed
Will provide good understanding of the job and serve as a basis
of comparison against which revisions can be judged.
19. Analyzing th Job and
Proposing New Methods
Facilitated by the use of various charts such as;
flow process charts
worker-machine charts
20. Flow Process Charts
Used to examine the overall sequence of an operation by
focusing on movements of the operator or flow of materials.
Helpful in identifying non-productive part of the process
Used to study the flow od material through a department
Used to study the sequence that documents or forms take.
Used in analyzing movement and care of surgical patients
Layout of department and grocery stores
Mail handling
21. 1. Why is there delay or storage at this point?
2. How can travel distances be shortened or avoided?
3. Can materials handling be reduced?
4. Would a rearrangement of the workplace result in greater
efficiency?
5. Can similar activities be grouped?
6. Would the use of additional or improved equipments?
24. Worker-machine chart
Used to determine portions of a work cycle during which an
operator and equipment are busy or idle.
25.
26. Installing the Improved Method
Convinced manager + cooperating workers
NOTE: If the proposed method constitutes a major change
from the way the job has been performed in the past,
workers may have to undergo a certain amount of
retraining and full implementation may take time to
achieve.
27. The follow-up
To ensure that changes has been made
To ensure that the proposed method is functioning as
expected
28. MOTION STUDY
Systematic study of the human motions used to perform an
operation.
Purpose:
To eliminate unnecessary motions
To identify the best sequence of motions for maximum
efficiency.
29. Motion study techniques
1. Motion study principles
2. Analysis of therbligs
3. Micromotion study
4. charts
30. Motion study principles
Guidelines for designing motion-efficient work procedure
1. Eliminate unnecessary motions
2. Combine Activities
3. Reduce Fatigue
4. Improve the arrangement of the workplace
5. Improve the design of tools and equipment
31. Therbligs
Basic elemental motions that make up a job
NATURE:
Search- hunting for an item with hands and/or eyes
Select – means to choose from a group of objects
Grasp – to take hold of an object
Hold – retention of an object after being grasp
Transport load – movement of an object after hold
Release – deposit the object
32. Micromotion study
Use of motion pictures and slow motion to study motions
that otherwise would be too rapid to analyze.
33. WORKING CONDITIONS
Temperature and Humidity
Ventilation
Illumination
Noise and vibrations
Work Breaks
Safety
**Causes of Accidents – carelessness and Accident Hazards
35. Standard time
The amount of time it should take a qualified worker to
complete a specified task, working at a sustainable rate,
using given methods, tools and equipment, raw materials,
and workplace arrangement
Periodic time studies may be used to update the standards
The most commonly used method of time elements are;
Stopwatch time study
Standard elemental times
Predetermined time standards
Work sampling
36. STOPWATCH TIME STUDY
Introduced by Frederick Winslow Taylor – late 19th century
Most widely used method of work instrument
Especially appropriate for short, repetitive tasks
Used to develop a time standard based on observations of
one worker taken over a number of cycles.
37. Steps in time study
1. Define the task to be studied, and inform the worker who
will be studied
2. Determine the number of cycles to be observe
3. Time the job, and rate the worker’s performance
4. Compute the standard time
38. Number of Cycles Function
1. Variability of Observed times
2. Desired Accuracy
3. Desire Level of Confidence
39. Formula (sample size needed)
Where
Z = # of normal standard deviations
2 (SD) needed for desired confidence
zs
S = sample SD
a= Desired accuracy (%)
n
= Sample mean
x
ax
40. Alternative:
2
**when the desired accuracy
zs
is stated as an amount
instead of percentage
n Where:
e
e = Maximum acceptable error
41. Example 1
A time study analyst wants to estimate the time required to
perform a certain job. A preliminary study yieldes a mean of
6.4 minutes and a standard deviation of 2.1minutes. The
desired confidence is 95%. How many observations will he
need if the desired maximum error is
a. + or – 10% of the sample mean?
b. One-half minute?
42. Solution
a. s= 2.1minutes z= 1.96
x = 6.4mins a= 10%
2 2
zs 1.96(2.1)
n n 41.36 42
ax 0.10(6.4)
2 2
b. e= 0.5 zs 1.96(2.1)
n 67.77 68
e 0.5
44. Observed Time
Average of recorded times
Where:
xi OT = Observed time
x
i = Sum of recorded times
OT n = number or observations
n
45. Normal Time
Observed time adjusted for worker performance
Computed by multiplying Observed time by performance
rating
NT = OT X PR Where: NT= Normal time
PR = Performance rating
46. Normal Time
If ratings are made on an element-by-element basis, the
normal time is obtained by multiplying each element’s
average time by its performance rating and summing those
values:
NT = xj PRj
Where
xj = Ave time for element j
PRj = Perfomance rating for element j
47. Standard Time
Normal time multiplied by an allowance factor (personal,
unavoidable delays or rest breaks)
ST = NT × AF
Where
ST = Standard time
AF = Allowance factor
48. Allowance factor
AFjob 1 A = Allowance percentage based on job time
1
AFday = Allowance percentage based on
1 A workday
49. Sample Problem
Compute the allowance factor for these two cases:
a. The allowance is 20 percent of job time
b. The allowance is 20 percent of work time
50. Solution
A = .20
a. AF = 1 + A = 1.20, or 120%
1 1
b. AF = = 1.25, or 125%
1 A 1 0.20
51. Typical Allowance Percentage for
Working Conditions
A. Constant Allowances:
1. Personal allowance 5
2. Basic fatigue allowances 4
52. B. Variable Allowance
1. Standing Allowance 2
2. Abnormal Position Allowance
a. Slightly awkward………………………………………………………………… 0
b. Awkward (bending) ……………………………………………………………. 2
c. Very awkward (lying, stretching) …………………………………………… 7
3. Use of force or muscular energy: Weight lifted (lbs)
5…………………………………………………………………………………………. 0
10……………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
15……………………………………………………………………………………….. 2
20……………………………………………………………………………………….. 3
25……………………………………………………………………………………….. 4
30……………………………………………………………………………………….. 5
35……………………………………………………………………………………….. 7
40……………………………………………………………………………………….. 9
45……………………………………………………………………………………….. 11
50………………………………………………………………………………………. 13
53. 4. Bad light
a. Slightly below recommended 0
b. Well below 2
c. Very inadequate 5
5. Atmospheric conditions
(heat and humidity)- variable 0-10
6. Close attention:
a. Fairly fine work 0
b. Fine or extracting 2
c. Very fine or very extracting 5
7. Noise level
a. continuous
0
b. intermittent – loud
2
c. intermittent – very loud
5
d. High-pitched- loud
5
8. Mental strain:
a. Fairly complex process 1
b. Complex or wide span of attention 4
c. Very complex 8
54. 9. Monotony:
a. low
0
b. Medium
1
c. High
4
10. Trediousness:
a. Rather tredious 0
b. Tredious 2
c. Very tredious 5
55. Sample Problem
A time study of an assembly operation yielded the following observed times for
one element of the job, for which the analyst gave a performance rating of 1.13
Using an allowance of 20 percent of job time, determine the appropriate
standard time for this operation.
i Time, x i Time, x
Observation (minutes) observation (minutes
1 1.12 6 1.18
2 1.15 7 1.14
3 1.16 8 1.14
4 1.12 9 1.19
5 1.15 Total 10.35
N=9 PR = 1.13 A = 0.20
56. Solution
OT = xi 10.35
= 1.15 minutes
n 9
NT = OT × PR = 1.15 (1.13) = 1.30minutes
ST = NT × (1 + A) = 1.30(1.20) = 1.56 minutes
57. STANDARD ELEMENTAL TIME
Derived from a firm’s own historical time study data
Procedure for using Standard Elemental times
1. Analyze the job to identify the standard elements
2. Check the file for elements that have historical times, and
record them. Use time study to obtain others, if necessary
3. Modify the file times of necessary
4. Sum the elemental times to obtain the normal time, and factor
in allowances to obtain the standard time.
58. Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Potential savings in cost and 1. Times may not exist for
effort enough standard elements
to make it worthwhile
2. Less disruption of work
2. File times ma be biased or
3. Performance ratings do not inaccurate
have to be done
59. PREDETERMINED TIME
STANDARDS
Published data based on extensive research to determine
standard elemental times.
Methods-time measurement
Commonly used system
MTM tables are based on extensive research of basic elemental
motions and times
60. Advantages
1. Based on large numbers of workers under controlled
conditions
2. The analyst is not required to rate performance in
developing the standard.
3. There is no disruption of the operation
4. Standards can be established even before a job is done.
61. WORK SAMPLING
Technique for estimating the proportion of time that a
worker or machine spends on various activities and the idle
time.
Does not require timing an activity NOR involve continuous
observation of the activity
Observer makes brief observations of a worker or machine at
a random intervals
Primary uses
1. ratio-delay studies
2. Analysis of non-repetitive jobs
64. Time-based system
Compensate employees for the time the employee has worked
during a pay period
Management Worker
ADVANTAGES 1. Stable labor cost 1. Stable pay
2. Easy to administer 2. Less pressure to
produce than under
output system
3. Simple to compute pay
4. Stable Output
DISADVANTAGES 1.. No incentive to workers 1. Extra efforts not
to increase output rewarded
65. Output-based
According to the amount of output they produce during a pay
period
Tying pay directly to performance
Management Worker
ADVANTAGE 1. Lower cost per unit 1. Pay related to efforts
2. Greater output 2. Opportunity to earn more
DISADVANTAGES 1. Wage computation more 1. Pay related to efforts
difficult
2.Need to measure output 2. Workers may be penalized because of
factors beyond their control
3. Quality may suffer
4. Difficult to incorporate wage
increase
5. Increase problems with
scheduling
67. INDIVIDUAL INCENTIVE PLANS
Straight piecework-worker’s pay is direct linear function of his
or her output
Protects the worker from pay loss due to delays, breakdowns
and similar probems
68. GROUP INCENTIVE PLANS
Team approach
Some exclusively focus on output, while others reward
employees for output and for reductions in material and
other costs
69. KNOWLEDGE-BASED PAY
SYSTEMS
A pay system used by organizations to reward workers who
undergo training that increase their skills
Three dimensions:
Horizontal skills – reflect the variety of tasks the worker is
capable of performing
Vertical skills – reflect managerial tasks the worker is capable of
Depth skills – reflect quality and productivity results
