1. BIODIVERSITY AND
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMEN
T
Madoffe, S.S.
Tailored for
3rd Year BSc WLM 2007

2. Introduction
o Living organisms and reliance on the env
o The world’s bd made up of mi of spp
o Species and environmental adaptation
o All species depend on one another- directly or
indirectly for their survival
o Recently more env degradation ever than
before
o Humans and the role on the future of the Earth
o Conflicts btn Resource Utilization and Cons
LEAD TO:
Debate on Biodiversity

3. Why conflicts over bd use?
 Different interest groups at:
local(medicinal), national (water
catchment) and International
(Carbon sequestration)
 Awareness on bd and measures to
reduce losses

4. CONCEPT OF BIODIVERSITY
 Existence of many species
 Need to identify them –
Estimates only
 Identification difficult –
WHY?

5. Table 1. Estimated number of individual species in thousands
ESTIMATED NUMBERS (THOUSANDS)
CATEGORY IDENTIFIED UNIDENTIFIED
ALGAE 50 350
ARACHNIDAE 45 550
CRUSTACEANS 50 150
FUNGI 40 1,360
INSECTS 1,000 1,400
MOLLUSCUS 250 100
NEMATODES 45 455
PLANTS 500 100
PROTOZOA 100 160
VERTEBRATES 150 0
OTHERS 240 260

6. EXTINCTION OF SPECIES
o Species extinction as natural phenomenon
o Role of human on spp extinction
o Do we know how many spp have
disappeared?
o Spp extinction and documentation
o Have we overdrawn our account?
o Status of Global forest
o Examples from EAMs and Amazon
o Protect what protects us

7. BD &BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES
o Biodiversity buzzword for the
1990's,
o Concern over bd is not new.
o BD = Contraction of Biological
diversity.
o Biodiversity variety of life
forms OR
o Variety and variability among
living organisms

8. LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
 Three fundamental levels
 Genetic diversity:
 Species diversity
 Ecosystem diversity

9. Main gradients of terrestrial diversity
 Diversity increases from:
 Latitudinal gradients: Increase
Poles – equator
 Elevation gradients: Increases
with altitude.
 Precipitation gradients
 Others include: Nutrient levels,
Salinity gradients and Island

10. TROPICAL BIODIVERSITY
 AN OVERVIEW
 Very high bd:- spp, habitats,
ecosystems
 Spp richness depends on RTH.
 About 2/3 of all spp occur in tropics
 Tropical humid forests 14-18 mi. km2
 Today shrinkage 1 mi. km2 every 5 -
10 yrs.

11. EA a Mega-biodiversity Region
 Due to:
 Biogeographic diversity
 Diversity of the land-form from
 Patterns of geological change
 History of ethnic/cultural diversity

12. Uses of Biodiversity
 Direct use
 Consumptive
 Commercial
 Indirect values
 Maintain water cycles
 Climate regeneration
 Storage and cycling of essential nutrients
 Photosynthesis etc
 These values: could be looked at:
 International, National, or local.

13. AGRICULTURAL VALUES OF
BIODIVERSITY
 Genetic resources - rapid growth,
high yield, pest resistance etc
 Crossing of cultivated species and
their wild relatives
 Variety of gemplasm e.g. dry land
cereals: millet,
 Wild species of cropping potential
for agriculture/livestock

14. Biodiversity hotspots
 What are hotspots?
 High diversity of endemic spp and
threatened
 Support 1,500 endemic plant species,
0.5%t of the global total
 Plant diversity is the biological basis
for hotspot designation WHY?
 Diversity of endemic vertebrates in
hotspot regions is also extraordinarily
high

15. BD hotspot cont.
 There are 34 regions of
biodiversity hotspots worldwide
 Examples: Madagascar, The tropical
Andes, Mediterranean region,
Mesoamerica, the Caribbean, Indo
Burma etc
 In EA we have EAMs and Coastal
forests of Kn and Tz

16. What are endemic species?
 Highly restricted organisms example
 Saint paulia (African violet),
 Usambara eagle owl,
 Uluguru violet-backed sunbird.

17. Why are there endemic species?
 Evolutionary history and respond
to the environment they inhabit.
 Their ecological requirements
are only met over a small area
and
 They are not capable of
dispersing great distances to
other suitable habitats.

18. Why do hotspots have many endemic
species?
 Many of the world's hotspots are
islands WHY?.
 Isolation over long periods of
geologic time
 Benign environments - greatest
diversity of ecosystems
 Isolate benign environments

19. Why are hotspots threatened?
 Island nature - Often unprepared to
compete with the introduced and
exotic species
 They are ecologically "naive." – due
to evolutionary history
 Threats by humans - logging, slash
and burn, mining etc

20. Hotspots conservation
 Pre-requisite
 Relies on scientific evaluations of
the threatened status of species.
 Determining priority areas for
conservation
 Set conservation priorities on the
basis of resources and importance
of the area

21. Hotspots can be evaluated in terms of:
 Their unique biodiversity
 The amount of habitat lost and
protected, and
 The number of endemic species in a
small area

22. Some conservation approaches
 The establishment of traditional PAs
 Implementation innovative
economic alternatives
 Influencing the behaviour of the
locals Working with international
corporations
 Employ scientific, economic, policy,
and education tools to create
effective conservation strategies.

23. Monitoring hotspots
 Aim: Implement programs and
strategies that are effective at
protecting bd
 Hotspots are dynamic places
 Need to monitor them on what has
already happened
 Anticipate what might happen,
based on what has happened before

24. Monitoring done through
 Understanding the situation in these
areas e.g.
 Patterns of biodiversity
 Which spp are concentrated in which
places?
 Factors contributing to biodiversity loss
 How is biodiversity changing over time?
Different ways of monitoring: Permanent
sample plots, remotes sensing etc

25. Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal
Forests of East Africa
 The Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal
Forests hotspot (Fig. 1)
 Stretches along most of the eastern coast of
Tanzania and into extreme SE Kenya.
 The hotspot extends more than 400 km
 Comprises only 0.1% of tropical Africa's
land area yet
 contains 13% of the entire continent's
vascular plants.

26. The EAMs of EA

27. Threats to EAMs
 Fire
 Illegal logging and pole extraction
 Encroachment for Agricultural
development and settlement
 Human population pressures also
threaten the remaining forests
 Alien invasive species

28. Fire in lowland adjacent to EAMs

29. Cons of EAMs and Coastal forests
 What are the current
conservation initiatives taken
by both Tz government and
International institutions?

30. THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
 The rate of species extinction is
higher today than ever before
 In spite of this there are more
species to date on earth than ever
before.
 BD loss and environmental
degradation is a result of humanity
+ natural

31. A: Socio-economic context of
Biodiversity loss
 i) Poverty
 ii) Loss of Traditional Knowledge
 iii) Population dynamics
 Consider : Migrations by people and
livestock
 Urbanization
 Refugees in small area

32. iv) Poor agricultural practices
 Extensive and shifting cultivation
 Indiscriminate use of fire
 Cultivation on slopes – lead to soil
erosion
 Monocultural farming
 Over-grazing
 Dilemma of pushing pastoralists to
marginal areas

33. v) Pollution
 Agro-chemicals (pesticides, and
chemical fertilizers)
 Mining lead to degradation, water
pollution and disturbance of wildlife.
 Traffic.

34. vi) Energy Crisis
 Bio-energy use is about 92%
 Petroleum 7.2%, and electricity
0.8%
 vii) Tourism
 What are main tourism related
problems?

35. 2. Ecological aspects of BD loss
i) Invasive species
ii) Aforestation and deforestation

36. Examples of some threats to
biodiversity in Tanzania
 i) Ecological isolation of
protected areas
 Tarangire NP is isolated from lake
Manyara NP
 Uluguru as an ecological islands
 Ref. Island biogeography theory

37. ii) Fragmentation of protected areas
 Due to: logging, mining, construction e.g.
Ruvu F.R., Selous (TAZARA).
 Fragmentation:
 Reduces the effective habital areas
 Divides plant and animal pops into
smaller isolated pops that become viable
to local extinction
 Creates gaps barriers for dispersal and
migration of animals and plants.

38. iii) Food and timber production
methods
 Change from subsistence agriculture
- industrial agriculture
 Clearing natural forests for
industrial forest plantations
 WHY is industrial farming not
sustainable in tropical Africa?

39. iv) Invasive exotics into protected
areas
 What’s an Invasive species?
 What’s Alien invasive species?

40. Factors contributing to the introduction
and spread of alien species
 Human mobility.
 Economic and trade
 Climate change
 Conflict and construction
 Tourism
 Biological control of pests
 Forest/ecosystem disturbance

41. Examples of Alien invasive spp in EA
 Nile perch (Lates niloticus)
 Maesopsis eminii
 Acacia mearnsii
 Lantana camara
 Senna spectabilis
 Indian house crow

42. Alien invasive species
Maesopsis eminii in the E. Usambaras

43. Lantana camara

44. Impacts of Invasive species
 Can reduce the quality of the forest
 Sometimes they can eliminate native spp
 Sometimes invaders brings its diseases or
parasites
 Sometimes they interbreed - thus
eroding native gene diversity
 Sometimes exotics out-compete natives
for an essential resource
 They exert a price.

45. How can we protect our PAs from
notorious invasives?
 Quarantine
 Planned imports and releases of exotics
 Importers to accept liability for damages
 Govt determine ecological effects of new
spp
 International co-operation
 Adopt a general policy on use of native
species

46. Control/Elimination of invasive species
 Mechanical Control
 Chemical Control by pesticides
 Biological Control
 Ecosystem Manipulation
 Integrated Management

47. V: Over-exploitation of plants and
animals
 Over-exploitation of plants and animals
like deforestation could result in:
 Habitat destruction and modification,
 Examples:
 Charcoal burning
 Excessive harvesting of animals e.g.
elephants, rhinos

48. Land clearing

49. Illegal logging/Mining

50. VI: Foreign debt serving
 High levels of foreign debt, has put
pressure on governments to engage
in a variety of agricultural and
industrial practices
 e.g Hunting block e.g. in Loliondo
 Mining in Lake Zone could endanger
some species - WHY?

51. ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
 What is Environment?
 Environment overlapping
phenomenon:
 physical, biological, anthropic, and
 resource generating in nature.
 Humans use Resources and could
be renewable or non-renewable

52. What is a resource
 Resource implies something which:
 Can be used to satisfy human
needs.
 Some technology to extract and
transform it to a usable form
 Must be a demand for that product.

53. Impacts of Environmental
degradation
 Loss of bd has significant impact on
environment
 Development activities could have
impact on the environment

54. Impacts
 Local impacts
 Consider impact of tree fall or animal
killed in a tropical forest
 National, regional and global impacts
 Effects of Uluguru Mt forests and water
resources in Dar
 River Nile and Niger
 Deforestation in the LCD and industrial
pollution in DC on C build-up.

55. Relationship Environment and bd
 Env and bd are cross-sectorial issues
 BD are therefore housed in
environmental agencies,
 e.g Environmental degradation increase
GHGs, soil erosion etc which impact on
biodiversity
 Solution to environmental problems is
thus solutions to biodiversity issues

56. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (SD)
 The Concept of SD and its
implications
 Development Environment led
to the concept of SD
 SD now a central concept in
environmental policies of many
countries.

57. Concept of SD cont.
 Several defs, however, balancing the
fulfillment of human needs with the
protection of NE so that these needs
can be met now and future
 SD has to be:
 environmentally friendly
 technically appropriate,
 economically viable and
 socially acceptable

58. Sustainable Agriculture
 Agriculture is sustainable if it
provide:
 Enough food
 Employment,
 Better income and
 Conserve NR and protect the
environment.

59. Requirements for sustainable
development
 Right Policy for effective citizen participation
 Conducive economic system
 Friendly social system with less conflicts
 Environmentally friendly production system
 International system that fosters sustainable
patterns of trade and finance
 Administrative system that is flexible and
has the capacity for self-correction

60. How to achieve sustainable
development
 i) Conservation and development – hand in
hand
 ii) Holistic Integration in: land use;
traditional and modern systems &
technology
 iii) Cropping/animal production systems
 iv) Alternative energy systems
 v) Monitoring of resources and environment
 vi) Education, training, and orientation
priorities

61. Challenges in Sustainable
Development
 Time-horizon of development
 The principle of the free market
mechanism
 Trickle-down process from the
developed countries
 Liberalization and an increase in
North-South trade and aid
cooperation

62. Constraints on SD in Sub-Saharan
Africa
 General constraints
 Political constraints
 Socio-economic constraints
 Technological constraints
 Specific or sectoral constraints
 Agriculture
 Industrial development
 Mineral industry development

63. Roles of BD in Sustainable
Agricultural Planning
 Maintain diversified ecosystem around
farms
 Diversified cropping systems, and cultivars.
 Traditional activities-ecologically sound
 Use env friendly cropping & husbandry
practice
 Promoting sound economic valuation
 Promote community participation in
planning

64. ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS
• Popular from 1960's & 1970's DCs
• Main concern human impact on env
• 1960's concern, pesticides, pollution,
& population.
• 1970's, concern resource depletion,
pop and poverty
• Today, global conservation & wise
mang of NR for SD

65. Major International Environmental
conference
 UNCHE - Stockholm in 1972.
 WCED - 1986 -Brundtland
 Advocated world "SD"
 1987,WCED "Our Common Future"
 Global env problems and measures to
solve them.

66. UNGA RESOLUTIONS
 1989- Holistic approach to env &
development
 1992 Earth Summit on SD – Rio
 MAIN OTPUT AGENDA 21

67. AGENDA 21
 Action Plan and Strategy of env &
economic problems & solutions to the
problems.
 Remove differences btn N&S
 Global consensus and political
commitment
 Develop alternative and more
environmentally friendly ways of living.
 Aiming to achieve SD - "sustainable living"

68. INTERNATIONAL IMPLEMENTATION
OF RIO COMMITMENTS
 International conferences of
1990's
 Establishment of legal,
institutional and policy
instruments
 Mid-term assessment (1997) of
Rio Resolutions

69. IMPLEMENTATION OF AGENDA 21
IN TANZANIA
◊ Ratified important international legal
instruments – eg BD & Climate Change
Conventions.
◊ Important legislations at national level –
Forest policy, Land policy, etc
◊ Institutional arrangements like
establishment of NEMC
◊ Policy documents e.g. Environment,
Population, HIV/AIDS, PRSPs

70. CONSTRAINTS IN IMPLEMENTING
AGENDA 21
 High Incidence of Poverty
 Un-equal distribution of pop/economy
 HIV/AIDS and human health
problems
 Other: extreme weather conditions,
negative effects of globalization etc

71. WORLD SUMMIT ON SD, JOBURG
2002 (WSSD)
 Main changes after Rio Summit:
 Globalisation,
 Increasedpoverty,
 HIV/AIDS, Loss of bd etc
 Rio was for commitments
 Joburg was to:
• Review progress of agenda 21 &
• Map way forward towards global SD.

72. Key areas dedicated for the WSSD
 Water, energy, Health, Agriculture
and Biodiversity
 To achieve SD in above areas we
need:
 Global Partnership e.g. NEPAD

73. Key Outcomes of the WSSD
 SD central element of the
international agenda
 More Governments commitments on
SD
 Energy and sanitation issues
 More support to Africa and NEPAD
 Civil society were given prominence
 The concept of partnerships

74. BEYOND JOSBURG: FUTURE
PERSPECTIVES FOR TANZANIA
 Main focus:
 Inter-sectoral co-ordination and integration
 More emphasis on SD and poverty reduction
themes
 Harmonization and further development of
legal, policy and institutional arrangements
 Further action on HIV/AIDS and poverty, and
environmental degradation

75. WORLD CONSERVATION
STRATEGY
 What is conservation?
 History of Conservation
e.g. Greeks and Romans
 Motivations for conservation in
Africa:
 Preserve game for colonial hunters
 Preserve for rituals (sacred forests)

76. CONSERVATION OBJECTIVES
 Maintain essential ecological processes
 Preserve genetic resources
 Ensure the sustainable utilisation of
species and ecosystems

77. WHY CONCERN ABOUT
CONSERVATION
General
 Reduced ecosystem services
 Resources degradation particularly in
DCs due to poverty and struggle for
food
 Increased costs to produce goods and
services
 The resource base of major industries
is shrinking

78. Other concerns: Global
 Many living resources are shared
 Many living resources occur in areas
beyond national jurisdiction
 Living resources in one state may be
affected by activities done in
another state

79. Main obstacles for conserving bd
 Belief on living resources
 Failure to integrate conservation with
development
 Poor developmental planning
 Lack of a capacity to conserve
 Lack of support for conservation
 Wrong target conservation group

80. CONSERVATION AND MANG OF BD
 Conservation to bd focus on:
• Causes of losses
• Opportunities for bd on SD
 BD not equally distributed – Set conser priority
 Approaches in priority setting
 biodiversity hotsports,
 major tropical wilderness and
 megadiversity countries.

81. Priority setting based on:
 Importance of the BD to nation's
survival
 Distribution of BD
 Level of endemism
 Level of threat
 Availability of resources

82. Why Conservation of Natural forest
and wildlife is a very challenging
 High demand of this resource by the
people.
 Artificial regeneration very difficult
and most of the species are under
studied.
 Little biological data for making
precise cons recommendations

83. METHODS OF REDUCING
BIODIVERSITY LOSSES
 Respective and incorporate African
values, knowledge systems, and
priorities
 Involving local people in
conservation activities
 Biodiversity conservation systems

84. Methods cont.
 Policies
 Education, Training and Networking
 Monitoring, Evaluation and Research

85. MILLENIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS
AND ENV. CONS
 2000, 189 countries sign Millennium
declaration
 Focus on the declaration:
Peace, security and disarmament
Development and poverty reduction
Protection of environment
Human rights, democracy and good
governance

86. WHAT ARE THE MDGS?
 Blueprint on devel & env - agreed by
all world countries & all leading
developing institutions to eradicate
extreme poverty worldwide
 Key target of MDGs – fight
poverty through reduced loss of env
resources by advocating bd
conservation

87. Element of the MDGs
i) Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
 Main sources of bd losses
 Particular attention to marginal areas
 BD main source of livelihood by poor
 Poor countries borrow from DCs and
they pay through bd utilization
 Strengthening rural income will
reduce BD losses

88. ii) Achieve universal primary education
 Girls/women are main target
 Importance of women on bd
cons
 Role of UNV

89. iii) Promote gender equity and
empower women
 Women are the poorest yet they
are main actors in bd cons
 Empowerment will help in decision
making, access to knowledge etc

90. Constraints of Women empowerment
and participation in BD conservation
 Traditions – women should not own
land
 Lack of ownership
 Little control of benefits from income
 Restricted in participation of social
welfare

91. Others
 iv) Reduce child mortality
 v) Improve maternal health
 vi) Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria
and other diseases
 vii) Ensure environmental
sustainability

92. viii) Develop global partnership for
development
 Open trade – non-discriminatory
 Assist to conserve rare species,
endangered etc
 Good governance reduce poverty
 Cancel debts etc

93. C: The Linkage of MDGs and BD
conservation
 Linkages btn MDG’s and BD cons exists but
not well articulated!!
 Consider poverty, diseases, education Vs
Env conservation!!
 Dangers of not understanding and
accepting the linkage by politicians and
technocrats
 Could compromise conservation
objectives

94. AND THEREFORE:
 Stable env will therefore assist to
achieve MDGs
 Income from bd can reduce
poverty
 Income from BD cons can improve
social services eg health,
education etc

95. ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND ITS
MEASUREMENTS
Why ecologists interested in ecological
diversity and its measurement.
 Comprehending ecosystem structure
and function.
 Conserving and breeding.
 Monitoring important land
management interventions
 Set areas of priority for conser of bd

96. Objective of measuring BD
 To provide baseline information on:
 distribution,
 richness and
 relative abundance of taxa that is
needed for conservation decision
NB: Biodiversity seen as indicators of the
wellbeing of ecological systems

97. How to measure diversity
 Recording the number of species
 Describing their relative abundance or
 Combine the two components

98. POPULATION INDICES
 Numerous diversity indices developed
 Indices seek to characterize the
diversity by a simple number.
 Two best known are
 Simpson’s Index
 Shannon’s

99. Simpson's Diversity Index
 Used to quantify the bd of a habitat.
 Takes into account:
 the number of species present, and
 abundance of each species.
 'Simpson's Diversity Index' refer to any
one of 3 closely related indices

100. i) Simpson's Index (D)
 D = (n / N)2
 n = the total no. of organisms of a
particular species
N = the total no. of organisms of all
species
 The value of D ranges between 0 and 1
 ii) Simpson's Index of Diversity 1 - D
 iii) Simpson's Reciprocal Index 1 / D

101. Measuring biodiversity
 Diversity appears to be very simple and
unambiguous concept.
 Where then is the scope for so many
competing indices?
 Because diversity measures takes
into account two factors.
 Species richness – i.e. number of species
 Evenness (equitability)

102. Example of the above
 Consider 4 sites A, B, C and D
 Site A: - 1 species of moth
 Site B: - 3 species of moth
 B is more diverse i.e. greater richness

103. Example cont.
 Site C: 4 spp - @ moth sp has 3 individuals
= 12
 Site D: 4spp – one sp has 9 individuals,
others (3 sp.) have 1 individual @ giving a
total of 12 individuals
 C & D have equal number of spp and
individuals (12),
 The greater evenness of C makes it
more diverse

104. METHODS OF ASSESSING FOREST
BIODIVERSITY
i)Traditional inventory analysis:
 Estimate of standing volume of
trees or animals in an area
 To determine changes with time
(e.g FHM)
 Could use permanent or temporary
sample plots

105. Methods cont.
ii) Remote Sensing:
 Include aerial photography and
satellite imagery
 Can not be used to identify
individual plant
 Can be used for mapping vegetation
(zonation) and land use planning

111. MORE READINGS ON:
 GLOBOLIZATION AND ITS
IMPACT TO BIODIVERSITY IN
THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
 GOOD LUCK