6. Terms
Hallucinogens
Drugs that induce perceived distortions in time and space
Phantasticants
Term used to describe drugs that create a fantasy world
Psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”)
A term that controversially implies a beneficial, visionary type of
effect
Psychotomimetic
Refers to drugs that produce psychotic-like symptoms
Psychotogenic
Refers to drugs that generate psychosis
7. Classical Phantastica
Alter perceptions while allowing the user to
remain in communication with the present
world
Indole hallucinogens
Serotonin
LSD, psilocybin
Catechol hallucinogens
Norepinephrine & dopamine
Mescaline, MDMA, belladonna, amanita muscaria
8. Deliriants
Produce more mental confusion, greater
clouding of consciousness, and a loss of touch
with reality
Anticholinergic hallucinogens
Acetylcholine
PCP, ketamine
9. Hallucinogens
About 6,000 different types of plants are
capable of altering consciousness
About 150 plants are used for hallucinogenic
purposes
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)
and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) are
synthetic hallucinogens
10. LSD Discovery
Synthesized from alkaloids
extracted from the ergot fungus
Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann
developed LSD as a possible
headache remedy in 1938
11. Albert Hofmann, who was responsible for
developing LSD, died from an LSD
overdose soon after developing the
drug.
A. True.
B. False. He died at 57,
jumping off a roof
during a flashback.
C. False. He lived to be
102 and died of
natural causes. True.
False.He
died
at57,jum
...
False.He
lived
to
be
102...
0% 0%0%
12. Early Use of LSD
Theories of Benefit
Psychotherapy
Enhanced understanding
Military Experiments
13. At one time, hallucinogenic
drugs were associated with
witchcraft and sorcery.
A. True
B. False
True
False
0%0%
15. At twice its normal dosage,
LSD can be fatal.
A. True
B. False
True
False
0%0%
16. Pharmacology
Mouse Party
Different hallucinogens are classified by which
neurotransmitter they impact
Tolerance develops rapidly
Metabolized by liver, half-life is
approximately 3 hours
No physical dependence or withdrawal
symptoms
17. LSD
A. Is the most potent
psychoactive chemical
known to man
B. Causes a distressing
withdrawal syndrome
C. Does not create
tolerance
Isthem
ostpotentpsych...
Causesadistressingw
it...
Doesnotcreate
tolerance
0% 0%0%
Response
19. The phenomenon of hearing
colors or seeing sounds is
called:
A. Flashback
B. Trip
C. Synesthesia
D. Overdose
Flashback
Trip
Synesthesia
Overdose
0% 0%0%0% Response
20. Use of LSD makes one more
creative.
A. True
B. False
True
False
0%0%
22. LSD has been shown to be as
addictive as heroin.
A. True
B. False
True
False
0%0%
23. Do you agree with using
hallucinogens for
psychotherapeutic purposes?
A. Yes
B. No
Yes
No
0%0%
24. Discussion 7
PRO GROUP – list 3-4 reasons to use
hallucinogens in a therapeutic setting
CON GROUP – list 3-4 reasons to NOT use
hallucinogens in a therapeutic setting
BOTH GROUPS – what safeguards should be
in place if/when these drugs are used?
BOTH GROUPS – do you believe these drugs
enhance creativity or spirituality or emotional
expression? Why or why not??
25. Expert Group Activity
Study the hallucinogen
What is it?
How is it used?
How is it regulated?
What are the effects?
Are there negative effects or warnings?
Naming the family of drugs is a complex issue
Phantastica: Drugs that create a world of fantasy in our minds
Psychedelic: “Mind-viewing,” a term that controversially implies a beneficial, visionary type of effect
Psychotomimetic: “Mimicking psychosis”—by producing hallucinations and some altered sense of reality, these drugs produce a state that could be described as psychotic
Naming the family of drugs (continued)
Entheogen and entactogen
Entheogens: Substances that create spiritual or religious experiences
Entactogens: Substances that enhance feelings of empathy
Hallucinogens: A more descriptive and less prejudiced term
A drug that produces profound alterations in perception, including unusual visual sensations and often changes in the perception of one’s own body
Two major groups
Classical phantastica
Alter perceptions while allowing the user to remain in communication with the present world
Deliriants
Produce more mental confusion, greater clouding of consciousness, and a loss of touch with reality
Naming the family of drugs is a complex issue
Phantastica: Drugs that create a world of fantasy in our minds
Psychedelic: “Mind-viewing,” a term that controversially implies a beneficial, visionary type of effect
Psychotomimetic: “Mimicking psychosis”—by producing hallucinations and some altered sense of reality, these drugs produce a state that could be described as psychotic
Naming the family of drugs (continued)
Entheogen and entactogen
Entheogens: Substances that create spiritual or religious experiences
Entactogens: Substances that enhance feelings of empathy
Hallucinogens: A more descriptive and less prejudiced term
A drug that produces profound alterations in perception, including unusual visual sensations and often changes in the perception of one’s own body
Two major groups
Classical phantastica
Alter perceptions while allowing the user to remain in communication with the present world
Deliriants
Produce more mental confusion, greater clouding of consciousness, and a loss of touch with reality
Hallucinogens are substances that alter sensory processing in the brain, causing perceptual disturbances, changes in thought processing, and depersonalization.
Sometimes described as causing a spiritual-like experience.
Indole hallucinogens = drugs that have the indole structure also found in the neurotransmitter serotonin
Examples: LSD, psilocybin
Catechol hallucinogens = drugs that have the catechol nucleus that forms the basic structure of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine
Examples: mescaline, MDMA (Ecstasy)
Compared to “phantastica,” deliriants have more of a tendency to produce mental confusion and a loss of touch with reality
Examples: PCP, anticholinergic hallucinogens like belladonna, mandrake, henbane, datura, amanita muscaria, salvia
Naturally occurring agents in this group come from the potato family
Effects come from three pharmacologically active alkaloids that are central and peripheral cholinergic blocking agents
Atropine (dl-hyoscyamine)
Scopolamine (l-hyoscine)
l-hyoscyamine
Many used as poisons in addition to being used for their hallucinogenic effects
Block production of mucus in the nose and throat and prevent salivation
Mouth becomes dry and perspiration stops
Temperature can increase to fever levels
Heart rate increases
Eyes dilate, resulting in an inability to focus on nearby objects
At high doses, behavior pattern resembles toxic psychosis (delirium, mental confusion, loss of attention, drowsiness, loss of memory for recent events)
The original deliriants
Humans have long used agents that cause visual, auditory, tactile, taste, and other hallucinations or that induce artificial psychoses
Mind-altering drugs were central in many Eastern religions, where they were used to achieve religious revelations
LSD reached the US in 1949, when it was used to study mental illness
It was later used by musicians and artists to enhance their creativity, and by government officials to determine its effectiveness as a mind-control agent
The Native American Church:
The American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978
Timothy Leary and the League of Spiritual Discovery:
The Psychedelic Experience
Some mental health providers claim these drugs can assist with psychotherapy.
Many drugs can exert hallucinogenic effects:
Traditional hallucinogens (LSD-types)
Phenylethylamines (Ecstasy, amphetamines)
Anticholinergic agents (Jimsonweed and other natural products)
Cocaine
Steroids
LSD is not found in nature; it is synthesized from alkaloids extracted from the ergot fungus Claviceps purpurea
Eating grain infected with this mold causes an illness called ergotism
During a famine, grain infected with the ergot fungus might be consumed instead of destroyed, leading to outbreaks of ergotism
1938: Synthesized by Dr. Albert Hofmann of Sandoz Laboratories in Switzerland
1943: Dr. Hofmann took a large dose and described its effects
Potency of the drug attracted attention—a very small dose produces effects
Comparable effects from mescaline would require 4,000 times the dose
Ergotism
A condition resulting from ingesting a fungus that grows on grains; marked by muscle tremors, burning, mania, delirium, hallucinations, and eventual gangrene
St. Anthony’s fire
Burning sensations caused by ergot poisoning
People during the Middle Ages would visit the shrine of St. Anthony in an attempt to cure it
LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), mescaline, psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine (DMT), and myristicin
These drugs cause predominantly psychedelic effects
Of high school seniors sampled:
1996: 8.8% had used LSD
2012: 2.4% had used LSD
Physical properties of LSD
In pure form: colorless, odorless, tasteless
Street names: acid, blotter acid, microdot, window panes
Mechanism of action
- Likely due to effects on the serotonin system
LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), mescaline, psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine (DMT), and myristicin
These drugs cause predominantly psychedelic effects
Of high school seniors sampled:
1996: 8.8% had used LSD
2012: 2.4% had used LSD
Between the early 1950s and 1970s, there was a tremendous amount of research performed with LSD
In psychotherapy, to help patients bring up repressed memories and motives
Dr Hofmann believed that LSD was a valuable psychedelic tool and could be used to enhance humans’ understanding of their place in nature.
Most research on LSD was found to contribute little to our understanding of the effects of the drug
Most research since 1975 has been conducted on animals in an effort to understand the drug’s action at the neural level
Various militaries, including the US military, experimented extensively with LSD and other hallucinogens
Between the 1950s and 1960s, hundreds of soldiers and civilians were unwittingly given doses of the drug
Subjects believed they were losing their minds.
Some suffered psychiatric disorders and others had difficulties adjusting to their usual lives.
Army/CIA-sponsored research was poorly done and violated many ethical codes
Once knowledge of the activities became public, the US government was required to pay reparations exceeding hundreds of thousands of dollars to some subjects and their families.
One of the first uses of LSD was to study mental illness, especially schizophrenia
Psychiatrists gave patients LSD to help them develop personal insight and to recall repressed experiences
LSD was given to terminally ill cancer patients to help them cope with impending death
Presently, LSD and other hallucinogens have no accepted medical uses
Objectively, LSD does not seem to improve creativity, although artists who take it seem to enjoy its effects
Some artists believe that the perceptual changes from LSD have a profound, positive effect
In another study, artists believed that their drawing skills vastly diminished under the influence of LSD
Research with LSD was conducted at the Edgewood Arsenal in Maryland in the early 1950s
In 1953, the CIA gave LSD to government scientist Frank Olson without his knowledge – he experienced a psychotic response and jumped to his death from a 10th-story window
Prostitutes in San Francisco were given LSD unknowingly to evaluate the drug’s effect on their sexual activities and experiences and on their patrons
Experiments by psychologist Timothy Leary on Harvard graduate students
His research came under increasing criticism due to charges that he was being less that rigorous and was using ethically questionable methods.
1966: Leary started a religion, the League of Spiritual Discovery, with LSD as the sacrament
Motto was “turn on, tune in, and drop out”
Use peaked in 1967 and 1968 and then fell due to reports of problems associated with its use including “bad trips,” prolonged psychotic reactions, worries about possible chromosome damage, self-injurious behavior and “flashbacks”
In the early 1960s, people took LSD as a means of dealing with society and its inherent problems
At Harvard University Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert studied the psychological effects of psilocybin, a hallucinogenic mushroom, on humans
Leary and Alpert believed that LSD and other hallucinogens were psychologically and spiritually beneficial
LSD is odorless, colorless, tasteless, and one of the most potent psychochemicals known
No known human overdose deaths
LD50 is about 400 times the behaviorally effective dose
Absorbed rapidly through the gastrointestinal tract
LSD is usually taken orally
Half-life is about three hours
LSD is metabolized by the liver
Excreted as the inactive chemical 2-oxy-lysergic acid diethylamide
Tolerance develops rapidly, within three to four days of daily doses
Recovery from tolerance is also rapid
Cross-tolerance occurs among LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin
Physical dependence to LSD or other hallucinogens has not been shown
LSD is a sympathomimetic agent
Autonomic signs appear quickly following administration
Dilated pupils, elevated temperature and blood pressure, increased salivation
The fact that the LSD molecule resembles the chemical structure of serotonin provided a clue that the drug might act on serotonin receptors to produce its effects
Best evidence indicates that LSD acts by stimulating the serotonin-2A subtype of receptor
LSD
The most powerful known hallucinogen
Tolerance develops rapidly
Has no taste, color, or odor
Used as microdots placed on blotter paper and licked
Behavioral effects last 6 to 8 hours
Operates on the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain
Causes chromosome damage
Physiological effects:
Massive increase in neural activity in some brain regions (“electrical storm”).
Activates sympathetic nervous system (rise in body temperature, heart rate, and blood pressure).
Parasympathetic nervous system (increase in salivation and nausea).
Individuals do not become physically dependent, but psychological dependency can occur.
Effects of this hallucinogen begin 30–90 minutes after ingestion and can last up to 12 hours.
Tolerance to the effects of LSD develops very quickly.
Behavioral effects:
Creativity and insight
Adverse psychedelic effects
Perceptual effects
Modification of perceptions
Visual images: Users see shapes and patterns, usually with intense colors and brightness
Users report an altered sense of time, changes in the perception of their own bodies, and alterations of auditory input
Synesthesia (“mixing of senses”), in which sounds may appear as visual images or visual pictures might alter in rhythm with music
Enhanced emotionality
Images may be perceived as beautiful and awe-inspiring or as intensely sad or frightening
Typically last six to nine hours
Autonomic responses occur over the first 20 minutes
Alterations in mood, perception, and sensation begin in the next 30 to 40 minutes
Full intoxication occurs within one hour
Loss of self-awareness and loss of control of behavior may occur
Unique and variable experiences
Expansive and pleasant—user feels she or he is uncovering great secrets or profundities
Constricted and negative—user experiences paranoia and feelings of persecution
Form-constants
May be combined with complex images
Synesthesia
Mixing of senses
Each trip is a unique experience
Impact on creativity
Unlikely to be enhanced successfully
Therapeutic usefulness?
Phase 1: lasting 1 to 2 hours, is marked by euphoria and either crying or laughing
Phase 2: 2 to 3 hours after ingestion, visual illusions and hallucinations appear
Phase 3: 3 to 4 hours after ingestion, is characterized by distortion of time, ego disintegration, mood swings, and occasionally panic and depression
Ergotism
A condition resulting from ingesting a fungus that grows on grains; marked by muscle tremors, burning, mania, delirium, hallucinations, and eventual gangrene
St. Anthony’s fire
Burning sensations caused by ergot poisoning
People during the Middle Ages would visit the shrine of St. Anthony in an attempt to cure it
Altered senses
Synesthesia
Loss of control
Flashbacks
Self-reflection
“Make conscious the unconscious”
Loss of identity and cosmic merging
“Mystical-spiritual aspect of the drug experience”
Impossible to determine true incidence of adverse reactions
Some bad reactions may be due to impurities in street LSD and/or preexisting psychological conditions in the user
Panic reactions
Flashbacks
Recurrence of symptoms weeks or months after an individual has taken LSD
Rare, variable, and unpredictable in occurrence
DSM-IV-TR classifies them as Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder
Long history of use among natives of Mexico
Psilocybe mexicana is the most well-known psychoactive mushroom
Primary active ingredient is the indole psilocybin
Dried mushrooms are 0.2 to 0.5 percent psilocybin
Effects are similar to LSD and mescaline and cross-tolerance exists among the three
Effects depend on dose
Up to 4 mg causes relaxation and some body sensations
Higher doses cause perceptual and body-image changes, with hallucinations in some individuals
Sympathetic arousal symptoms
May only be active after converted to psilocin
Good Friday study (1962) by one of Timothy Leary’s followers
Seminary students were given psilocybin or a placebo90 minutes before attending a religious service
Study looked at effect and magnitude of changes caused by the drug and at the durability of the changes
Researchers concluded that under certain circumstances, the drug enhances mystical or religious experiences
Most current production is from local, amateur growers
“Shrooms” might be consumed at a party in combination with alcohol
Psilocybin mushrooms
Called teonanacatl by Aztecs
In 1958, Albert Hofmann isolated the psychoactive ingredient
Effects are similar to LSD, but not as intense
Converted into psilocin by a stomach enzyme
Has no current medical use
Psilocybin
Principle source is the Psilocybe mexicana mushroom.
It is not very common on the street.
Hallucinogenic effects similar to LSD.
Cross-tolerance among psilocybin, LSD, and mescaline.
Stimulates autonomic nervous system, dilates the pupils, increases body temperature.
Worldwide, an important naturally occurring hallucinogen found in many plants
DMT is the active agent in Cohoba snuff, used in some South American and Caribbean Indian hunting rituals
Usually snuffed, smoked, or taken by injection
Ineffective when taken orally
Effects are very brief, but tolerance does not develop to its psychological effects
Dimethyltryptamine (DMT)
From leaves, bark, and seeds of various plants grown in South and Central America
First synthesized in 1931 (“businessman’s LSD”)
Euphoric effects last 1 to 2 hours
May result in a psychotic episode
Tolerance does not develop
Reduces heart rate and blood pressure
Dimethyltryptamine (DMT)
A short-acting hallucinogen.
Trace amounts are found in the body.
Found in seeds of certain leguminous trees and prepared synthetically.
It is inhaled and is similar in action to psilocybin.
Peyote (from the Aztec peyotl) is a small, spineless, carrot-shaped cactus, Lophophora williamsii Lemaire
Mostly subterranean, with only the pincushion-like top appearing above ground
Long pre-Columbian history of use among Mexican Indians, who used the plant ceremonially
Arthur Heffter isolated several alkaloids from peyote and showed that Mescaline was the primary psychoactive agent found in peyote.
Peyote cult moved north and became widely established among Indians of the plains by the late 19th century
Native American Church is an amalgamation of Christianity and traditional beliefs and practices of Native Americans, with peyote use incorporated into its ceremonies
Peyote use
In religious ceremonies
As a treatment for illness
Worn as a protective amulet
Current laws governing the use of peyote as a sacrament vary from state to state
Mescaline was isolated and synthesized by 1918
Peyote includes many other psychoactive alkaloids but mescaline has been identified as primarily responsible for the visual effects
Users may experience bad trips as well as nausea and physical discomfort
San Pedro cactus: Another mescaline-containing cactus, Trichocereus pachanoi, has also been used for thousands of years, but its recreational use is limited by frequent adverse side effects
Rapidly absorbed if taken orally
Half-life is about 6 hours
Effects
Low dose effects are primarily euphoric
Higher doses cause the full set of hallucinogenic effects
Most mescaline is excreted unchanged
Psychoeffective dose causes sympathetic arousal
LD50 is about 10 to 30 times the dose needed to cause behavioral effects
Tolerance develops more slowly to mescaline than to LSD
Cross-tolerance between LSD and mescaline
Peyote
A cactus containing the hallucinogen mescaline
Used by Aztec Indians for religious rituals
Mescaline
Psychoactive agent derived from the peyote cactus
Produces effects similar to norepinephrine
In small doses, produces euphoria
In larger doses, generates intense hallucinations
Stage 1: Contentment and sensitivity
Stage 2: Great calm, muscular sluggishness, and a shift of attention from external stimuli to introspection and meditation
Medical uses:
To treat patients with angina pectoris
Respiratory stimulant for patients with pneumonia
Peyote takes 30-90 minutes to take effect
Stays in the body about 10 hours
The hallucinogenic effect lasts about 2 hours
Tolerance to mescaline forms quickly and there is a cross-tolerance between mescaline and LSD
Mescaline (Peyote)
Mescaline is the most active drug in peyote; it induces intensified perception of colors and euphoria.
Effects include dilation of the pupils, increase in body temperature, anxiety, visual hallucinations, alteration of body image, vomiting, muscular relaxation.
Street samples are rarely authentic.
Prior to the scheduling of MDMA, some psychiatrists used it in practice because it was viewed as having a special ability to promote empathy, aiding in therapy
Effects
Heightened sense of “closeness” with others
Increased heart rate
Increased blood pressure
Euphoria
Increased sociability
Other autonomic effects
Some research has found that MDMA may cause brain damage
Selective destruction of serotonin neurons
Strong evidence from animal studies but limited evidence of long-term neurotoxic effects in humans
Listed as a Schedule I drug but continues to be studied as a potential psychotherapeutic agent
The phenylethylamine drugs are chemically related to amphetamines.
They have varying degrees of hallucinogenic and CNS stimulant effects.
LSD-like: predominantly release serotonin; dominated by their hallucinogenic action.
Cocaine-like: predominantly release dopamine; dominated by their stimulant effects.
Dimthoxymethylamphetamine (DOM or STP)
“Designer” amphetamines
3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA)
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine
(MDMA, Ecstasy); referred to as an entactogen (in 2012 used by 3.8% of high school seniors)
1-(1-phenylcyclohexyl) piperidine hydrochloride
Initially appeared to be a good anesthetic
It does not depress blood circulation or respiration or produce heart rate irregularities as some anesthetics do
Mechanism of action of PCP
PCP alters many neurotransmitter systems
Sigma receptor may be selective for PCP and similar drugs
Effects: The psychological reactions to the drug were unpredictable
By 1960, PCP had been characterized as
An excellent anesthetic for monkeys
A medically safe but psychologically troublesome anesthetic for humans
A hallucinogen different from LSD and mescaline, with profound effects on body perception
Currently, PCP is licensed for use as an animal anesthetic
Has had brief, sporadic periods of popularity
Relatively inexpensive and easy to manufacture
Sprinkled onto oregano, parsley, or alfalfa and sold as marijuana
Called “angel dust”
Joints made with PCP containing marijuana or another plant substance
Called “killer joints” or “sherms”
Some users develop psychological dependence on PCP
Animal studies also indicate a dependence-producing potential
A few but not all PCP users have been reported to behave violently
Urban legends of superhuman strength among PCP users are most likely false, BUT
Police attempting to arrest PCP users have had trouble subduing them due to the anesthetic effects of PCP
Phencyclidine hydrochloride (PCP or “angel dust”)
Developed in the 1950s as a surgical anesthetic
Illegal in the US since 1978
Generates anesthetic, hallucinogenic, stimulating, or depressing effects depending on the dosage and method of administration
Dissociative anesthetic
Alters perception of pain without loss of consciousness
Distributed under many names: angel dust, dust, rocket fuel, trank, crystal, PeaCe Pill, and hog
Popularity declined because it induced bizarre, violent behavior
Initially distributed in tablet or capsule form, but it also can be injected, snorted, or smoked
Acute effects last 4 to 6 hours, but the user may be in a state of confusion for 8 to 24 hours
Illegal use of PCP escalated toward the end of the 1960s and into the 1970s
Frequently used in place of other drugs such as LSD, THC, mescaline, or amphetamines
Because users are disoriented, paranoid, and violent, police and hospital personnel are wary of people who are using it
Feelings of warmth
Relaxation
Poor concentration
Depersonalization
Nystagmus
Agitation
Muscle rigidity
Sudden mood swings
Faster heart rate
Elevated blood pressure
Euphoria
Numbness
Distorted body image
Confusion
Poor coordination
Slow reaction time
Excessive salivation
Repetitive behavior
Higher body temperature
LARGE DOSES
Anorexia
Violent behavior
Restlessness
Suicide
Seizures
Paranoia
Insomnia
Amnesia
Depression
Coma
Death
Ketamine (K, Special K, or vitamin K)
Used in veterinary medicine in place of PCP
Effective for pain management in humans
Considered a dissociative anesthetic
Capable of producing confusion, hallucinations, delirium, excitement, irrational behavior, muscle rigidity, tremors, respiratory depression, irregular heartbeat, loss of appetite, skin rashes, nausea, and cardiac arrest
Ketamine (general anesthetic; PCP-like)
Dextromethorphan (cough suppressant)
High doses cause PCP-like effects
Commonly abuse by adolescents (5.6% high school seniors used in 2012)
Phencyclidine (PCP)
Considered by many experts as the most dangerous of the hallucinogens although it has a host of other effects as well.
It was developed as an intravenous anesthetic but was found to have serious adverse side effects.
Phencyclidine (PCP) physiological effects
Hallucinogenic effects, stimulation, depression, anesthesia, analgesia
Large doses can cause coma, convulsions, and death
PCP psychological effects
Feelings of strength, power, invulnerability, perceptual distortions, paranoia, violence, and psychoses and users appear like schizophrenics
Active ingredient is atropine
Name Atropa belladonna comes from two major historical uses
As a deadly poison: Atropos, one of the Three Fates in Greek mythology, was responsible for cutting the thread of life
14 berries contain a lethal dose of atropine
As a beauty aid: Belladonna, or “beautiful woman”
Extract of the plant dilates the eyes, which is thought to improve appearance
Some users report the sensation of flying
Use of belladonna may have been tied to some early descriptions of witchcraft and the activities of witches
Contains all three anticholinergic hallucinogen alkaloids
Close association with love and lovemaking going back to Genesis
The root is forked and can be said to resemble a human body
Long thought to be endowed with magical and medical properties
Henbane Contains scopolamine and l-hyoscyamine
Long known and used as a poison
Shakespeare’s Hamlet
Contain all three anticholinergic alkaloids in varying amounts
Long history of religious and medicinal use
China: Used to treat colds and nervous disorders
Ancient Greece: Oracle to Apollo in Delphi
India: Worship of Shiva, ingredient in love potions
Native Americans: Used Datura inoxia (loco weed or jimsonweed; see right)
Belladonna (deadly nightshade)
Found in Europe, North Africa, and Asia
Member of the tomato and potato family
Can be extremely toxic
Datura (locoweed, Jamestown weed, or jimsonweed)
Used in ancient China, Greece, India, and Africa
Side effects are potentially harmful and noxious
Recreational use is increasing
Mandrake
Derived from the nightshade family
Used during the Middle Ages in connection with witchcraft and sorcery
In large amounts, can cause coma and death
Two psychoactive drugs: scopolamine and atropine
Scopolamine has been used to treat motion sickness
Atropine is used to dilate the pupils and lessen lung congestion
Nutmeg and Mace
From seeds and fruit of the Myristica tree
Used without effect in food preparations
Large quantities induce visual and auditory hallucinations
Myristicin
Substance found in nutmeg and mace
Chemically similar to mescaline
Unpleasant side effects
The anticholinergic hallucinogens include naturally occurring alkaloid substances that are present in plants and herbs.
The potato family of plants contains most of these mind-altering drugs.
Three potent anticholingergic compounds in these plants:
Scopolamine
Hyoscyamine
Atropine
Called “fly agaric” because it stupefies flies that suck its juice
One of the most common poisonous mushrooms found in many parts of the world
Can cause severe effects of intoxication
Twitching limbs
Raving drunkenness
Agitation
Vivid hallucinations
Followed by hours of partial paralysis with sleep and dreams
Hallucinogen is excreted unchanged
Sacramental use mentioned in the poems of the Rig Veda (India)
May have been the ambrosia (“food of the gods”) mentioned in the secret rites of the Greek god Dionysius
May have been used by the cult that became Christianity
Long use by Siberian nomadic tribes
Used as a holy plant by several tribal groups in the Americas
Researchers have studied a number of compounds:
Muscarine
Bufotenin
Ibotenic acid
Muscimol
Muscimol can act as an agonist at GABA receptors
Anticholinergic hallucinogens
Found in datura and in Amanita muscaria mushrooms
Interfere with the action of acetylcholine to produce hallucinations
Have been used as medicines, poisons, and beauty aids
Can be highly toxic in large doses
Plants containing anticholinergic hallucinogens include belladonna, datura, henbane, and mandrake
Amanita muscaria is one of the oldest and most common hallucinogens; derived from the fly agaric mushroom
In India 3,500 years ago, the Rig Veda, an ancient Hindu book, called it soma
Viking warriors ingested Amanita muscaria to make them feel more fierce
This mushroom grows throughout the US, and can be lethal
Used for centuries in Oaxaca, Mexico, in religious ceremonies
Traditional methods of use
Chewing the leaves
Drinking a tea made from the crushed leaves
Smoking the dried leaves
Produces a hallucinatory effect
Recreational use reported in Mexico and the U.S.
Not currently listed as a federally controlled substance in the U.S., but is outlawed in several states
Mechanism of action
Active ingredient is salvinorin A, a highly potent agent
Salvinorin A binds selectively to the kappa opioid receptor, acting as an agonist (a unique pharmacological effect)
Salvinorin A
Relatively new hallucinogen derived from the sage family
Not yet illegal in the US, but banned in some states
When smoked, psychoactive effect lasts 15 minutes
Research into the effects of long-term medical and recreational use of the drug is limited
Salvia divinorum
“Legal” hallucinogenic herb, used by 4.4% of high school seniors in 2012
Can cause intense hallucinations and short-term memory loss
Ololiuqui, seeds of the morning glory plant Rivea corymbosa
Used as psychoactive agents in Mexico in the sixteenth century
Religious significance
Seeds contain several active alkaloids, including d-lysergic acid amide
Seeds from the Hawaiian baby woodrose, Argyreia nervosa, have also been used recreationally
Seeds contain d-lysergic acid amide
Outer coating of seeds contain toxic cyanogenic glycosides, which can make a user sick