About ancient beliefs on astronomy

1. Ancient Beliefs on
Astronomy
Reported by:
Crisanta B. Montejo
IV- Gen. Sci.

2. Astronomy
 is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its
origins in the religious, mythological, cosmological, calendrical,
and astrological beliefs and practices of prehistory
 In some cultures, astronomical data was used for astrological
prognostication
 Ancient astronomers were able to differentiate between stars
and planets, as stars remain relatively fixed over the centuries while
planets will move an appreciable amount during a comparatively short
time

3. Archaeoastronomy
 Since 1990 our understanding of
prehistoric Europeans has been
radically changed by discoveries of
ancient astronomical artifacts
throughout Europe.
 The artifacts demonstrate that
Neolithic and Bronze Age
Europeans had a sophisticated
knowledge of mathematics and
astronomy
The Nebra sky disk Germany 1600 BC
Calendrical functions of the Berlin Gold Hat c. 1000 BC

4. Archaeoastronomy
 Among the discoveries are:
 Bone sticks from locations like Africa and Europe from possibly as long
ago as 35,000 BCE are marked in ways that tracked the moon's phases.
 The Warren Field calendar in the Dee River valley
of Scotland's Aberdeenshire - world´s oldest known calendar, created
around 8000 BC
 Golden hats of Germany, France and Switzerland dating from 1400-800
BC The Golden hats are decorated with a spiral motif of the Sun and
the Moon. They were probably a kind of calendar used to calibrate between
the lunar and solar calendars

5. Early history
 Early cultures identified celestial objects with gods and spirits.
 They related these objects (and their movements) to phenomena
such as rain, drought, seasons, and tides.
 It is generally believed that the first astronomers were priests, and
that they understood celestial objects and events to be
manifestations of the divine, hence early astronomy's connection
to what is now called astrology

6. Early history
 Ancient structures with possibly astronomical alignments (such
as Stonehenge) probably fulfilled astronomical, religious, and social
functions.

7.  Calendars of the world have often been set by observations of the
Sun and Moon (marking the day, month and year), and were
important to agricultural societies, in which the harvest depended
on planting at the correct time of year

8.  Mesopotamia
 India
 Greece and Hellenistic World
 Egypt
 China
 Mesoamerica
 Medieval Middle East
 Medieval Western Europe
Ancient Beliefs on Astronomy

9. Mesopotamia
Main article: Mesopotamian astronomy
 The origins of Western astronomy can be found
in Mesopotamia, the "land between the
rivers" Tigris and Euphrates, where the ancient
kingdoms of Sumer, Assyria, and Babylonia were
located
Babylonian tablet recording Halley's comet in 164 BC.

10.  Our knowledge of Sumerian astronomy is indirect, via the earliest
Babylonian star catalogues dating from about 1200 BC.
 The fact that many star names appear in Sumerian suggests a
continuity reaching into the Early Bronze Age. Astral theology,
which gave planetary gods an important role in Mesopotamian
mythology and religion, began with the Sumerians
 Centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena are
recorded in the series of cuneiform tablets known as the Enūma
Anu Enlil.

11.  The astronomers of Babylon were
a special group of scribes who
observed the movements of the
stars and planets.
 Babylonians believed in the
reading of omens in the sky as a
mean to secure the state. These
were all important stimuli to
develop a fine astronomy.
This is a letter written to the Assyrian king
Ashurbanipal reporting a lunar eclipse.

12.  The oldest significant astronomical text that we possess is Tablet
63 of the Enūma Anu Enlil, the Venus tablet of Ammi-saduqa,
which lists the first and last visible risings of Venus over a period
of about 21 years and is the earliest evidence that the
phenomena of a planet were recognized as periodic

13.  The MUL.APIN, contains catalogues of stars and constellations as well
as schemes for predicting heliacal risings and the settings of the
planets, lengths of daylight measured by a water clock, gnomon,
shadows, and intercalations

14.  A significant increase in the quality and frequency of Babylonian
observations appeared during the reign of Nabonassar (747–733 BC)
 The systematic records of ominous phenomena in Babylonian
astronomical diaries that began at this time allowed for the discovery
of a repeating 18-year cycle of lunar eclipses, for example. The Greek
astronomer Ptolemy later used Nabonassar's reign to fix the
beginning of an era, since he felt that the earliest usable
observations began at this time.

15.  The last stages in the development of Babylonian astronomy took
place during the time of the Seleucid Empire (323–60 BC).
 In the 3rd century BC, astronomers began to use "goal-year texts"
to predict the motions of the planets

16. India
Main article: Indian astronomy
 Astronomy in the Indian subcontinent dates back to the period
of Indus Valley Civilization during 3rd millennium BCE, when it
was used to create calendars
 the oldest extant Indian astronomical text is the Vedanga
Jyotisha, dating from the Vedic period
Historical Jantar Mantar observatory
in Jaipur, India

17.  Vedanga Jyotisha describes rules for tracking the motions of the
Sun and the Moon for the purposes of ritual.
 During 6th century, astronomy was influenced by the Greek and
Byzantine astronomical traditions

18.  Aryabhata (476–550), in his magnum opus Aryabhatiya (499),
propounded a computational system based on a planetary model
in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and the
periods of the planets were given with respect to the Sun
 He accurately calculated many astronomical constants, such as the
periods of the planets, times of the solar and lunar eclipses, and
the instantaneous motion of the Moon

19.  Bhāskara II (1114–1185) was the head of the astronomical
observatory at Ujjain, continuing the mathematical tradition of
Brahmagupta.
 He wrote the Siddhantasiromani which consists of two parts:
1. Goladhyaya (sphere) and
2. Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets).
 He also calculated the time taken for the Earth to orbit the sun to 9
decimal places.

20.  Astronomy was advanced during the Shunga Empire and
many star catalogues were produced during this time
 The Shunga period is known as the "Golden age of astronomy
in India“
 It saw the development of calculations for the motions and
places of various planets, their rising and
setting, conjunctions, and the calculation of eclipses.

21. Greece and Hellenistic
World
Main article: Greek astronomy
 The Ancient Greeks developed
astronomy, which they treated as a
branch of mathematics, to a highly
sophisticated level
The Antikythera Mechanism was an analog
computer from 150–100 BC designed to
calculate the positions of astronomical
objects.

22.  The Greeks' neighbours, Egyptians and Babylonians, had highly
developed astronomies, but the forces driving them were different.
 The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the
apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC
by Eudoxus of Cnidus and Callippus of Cyzicus
 Their models were based on nested homocentric spheres centered
upon the Earth. Their younger contemporary Heraclides
Ponticus proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis.

23.  A different approach to celestial phenomena was taken by natural
philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle.
 They were less concerned with developing mathematical predictive
models than with developing an explanation of the reasons for the
motions of the Cosmos
 In the 3rd century BC Aristarchus of Samos was the first to suggest
a heliocentric system, although only fragmentary descriptions of his idea
survive.

24.  In the 3rd century BC Aristarchus of Samos was the first to suggest
a heliocentric system, although only fragmentary descriptions of his idea
survive
 Greek geometrical astronomy developed away from the model of concentri
spheres to employ more complex models in which an eccentric circle would
carry around a smaller circle, called an epicycle which in turn carried around
planet.

25.  The Antikythera mechanism, an ancient Greek astronomical
observational device for calculating the movements of the Sun and
the Moon, possibly the planets, dates from about 150–100 BC, and
was the first ancestor of an astronomical computer
 Depending on the historian's viewpoint, the acme or corruption of
physical Greek astronomy is seen with Ptolemy of Alexandria, who
wrote the classic comprehensive presentation of geocentric
astronomy

26. Egypt
Main article: Egyptian astronomy
 Ancient Egypt, had a rich religious
tradition which permeated every aspect
of society.
 As in most early cultures, the patterns
and behaviors of the sky led to the
creation of a number of myths to explain
the astronomical phenomena. For the
Egyptians, the practice of astronomy went
beyond legend
Chart from Senemut's tomb, 18th
dynasty

27.  Foremost of the archaeoastronomers, and one of the pioneers in the
field, was Sir Norman Lockyer, a British astronomer who lived from
1836-1920 and extensively studied Egyption astronomy. In his
wonderful book 'The Dawn of Astronomy
three distinct phases.
1. a civilization goes through the worship stage, where
astronomical phenomena are viewed only as the actions, moods,
and warnings of the gods.
2. a civilization progresses to using astronomy for terrestrial
purposes, such as for agriculture or navigation.
3. to study astronomy solely for the sake of gaining knowledge.

28.  Egyptian administration relied on well-established calendars to
anticipate the flooding of the Nile; rituals were required to be able
to tell the time during the night, and the orientation of
monuments in the cardinal directions was also important.

29. Astronomical Worship
 The Egyptian gods and goddesses were numerous and are
pictured in many paintings and murals.
 Certain gods were seen in the constellations, and others
were represented by actual astronomical bodies.
 The constellation Orion, for instance, represented Osiris, who
was the god of death, rebirth, and the afterlife. The Milky
Way represented the sky goddess Nut giving birth to the sun
god Ra

30. Astronomy for Practical Uses
 The Egyptian astronomers, who were
actually priests, recognized that the
flooding always occurred at the summer
solstice, which was also when the bright
star Sirius rose before the Sun. The priests
were therefore able to predict the annual
flooding, which made them quite
powerful.
 Many Egyptian buildings were built with an
astronomical orientation. The temples and
pyramids were constructed in relation to
the stars, zodiac, and constellations

31.  Astronomy played a considerable part in religious matters for fixing
the dates of festivals and determining the hours of the night. The
titles of several temple books are preserved recording the movements
and phases of the sun, moon and stars.
 Writing in the Roman era, Clement of Alexandria gives some idea of
the importance of astronomical observations to the sacred rites
 The Astrologer's instruments (horologium and palm) are a plumb
line and sighting instrument

32. China
Main article: Chinese astronomy
 The astronomy of East Asia began
in China. Solar term was completed
in Warring States period. The knowledge of
Chinese astronomy was introduced into East
Asia.

33.  In ancient China, it was believed that events in the sky directly
reflected events on earth
for example, a comet suddenly appeared in the sky it was
thought that something important and unexpected was about to
happen on earth, perhaps something like a major battle.

34.  The emperor was believed to be the Son of Heaven who had been
given the Mandate, or right to rule, by Heaven itself
 Halley’s comet from 3000 years ago, the only civilisation in the world
to have done so.
Silk Atlas of Comets from
the Hunan Provincial Museum
Source image taken from Album of Relics of Ancient
Chinese Astronomy, Zhongguo Gudai Tianwen Wenwu
Tuji, CASS (Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Institute
of Archaeology), 1980. Beijing. 8, 57.

35.  The emperor’s astronomers were also responsible for
producing the calendar each year, a document
commonly known as an almanac. No one else was
allowed to calculate a calendar

36. The Regions of the Sky
 The Chinese sky was
divided into five great
regions or palaces
called gong 宫.
 These were equated with
the directions north,
south, east and west and
also with a middle
region.

37.  The middle region was the most important as it housed among its
stars the celestial image of the emperor surrounded by his family
and civil and military officials. This part of the sky has constellations
such as ‘the prince’, ‘the concubine’, and ‘the throne’ and is a
reflection of life on earth.
 The rest of the sky contains the equatorial constellations grouped in
the four directions, each associated with an animal and a colour

38.  In addition, Chinese astronomers identified twenty-eight segments in
the sky known as mansions or lunar lodges and called xiu 宿 in Chinese
 However, later the mansions were used rather to measure the
coordinates of celestial bodies along the equator in the Chinese
system. Many of the most important Chinese constellations are
situated within these twenty-eight mansions.

39.  On a Chinese star map each of the
four directions contains seven of the
twenty-eight mansions and together
with the central region of the sky,
synonymous with the emperor, and
therefore China itself, these regions
make up what are known as the five
cardinal points
You can see how the constellations appear to form
the shapes of the four animals here:

40. The Constellations
 The most important Chinese constellations are situated very
approximately along the celestial equator within the twenty-eight
mansions and are seen highlighted in yellow.
Apian's Star Chart from Astronomicon
Caesareum,1540.
Maps C.6.d.5 © The British Library

41.  The twenty-eight constellations of the Chinese sky
are also important for astrological divination and
have various linked meanings and associations. The
first is the name of a famous general.
 Twenty-eight great warriors came to the aid of the
general. Although they were defeated, their names
were given as a mark of respect to the heavenly
constellations
Honter's Star Charts, 1541.
Maps c.1.c.2(2) © The British Library

42.  Each constellation is also
associated with an animal,
and also with a particular
day of the lunar cycle.
 It is believed that when the
moon moves through these
constellations on their
designated days, fortunes
relating to auspicious and
inauspicious activities for
the day should be observed

43. REGION CHINESE NAME
LOCATION
ON MAP
ENGLISH
NAME
WESTERN
EQUIVALENT
NAME
ASSOCIATED
DATE
ASSOCIATED
ANIMAL
The Blue
Dragon of
the East
Jiao 角 1 Horn a Virg Thurs 1st Crocodile
Kang 亢 2 Neck k Vir Fri 2nd Dragon
Di 氐 3 Root a2 Lib Sat 3rd Badger
Fang 房 4 Room p Sco Sun 4th Hare
Xin 心 5 Heart s Sco Mon 5th Fox
Wei 尾 6 Tail m1 Sco Tue 6th Tiger
Ji 箕 7
Winnowing
basket
g Sgr Wed 7th Leopard
The Black
Tortoise of
the North
(Nan)Dou 斗 8 South Dipper f Sgr Thurs 8th Unicorn
Niu 牛 9 Ox /Herd b Cap Fri 9th Buffalo
Nü 女 10 Girl e Aqr Sat 10th Bat
Xu 虚 11 Emptiness b Aqr Sun 11th Rat
Wei 危 12 Rooftop a Aqr Mon 12th Swallow
Shi 室 13 House a Peg Tue 13th Pig
Bi 壁 14 Wall g Peg Wed 14th Porcupine

44. REGION CHINESE NAME
LOCATION
ON MAP
ENGLISH
NAME
WESTERN
EQUIVALENT
NAME
ASSOCIATED
DATE
ASSOCIATED
ANIMAL
The White
Tiger of the
West
Kui 奎 15 Legs h And Thurs 15th Wolf
Lou 婁 16 Bond b Ari Fri 16th Dog
Wei 胃 17 Stomach 41 Ari Sat 17th Pheasant
Mao 昴 18 Hairy Head h Tau Sun 18th Cockerel
Bi 毕 19 Net e Tau Mon 19th Crow
Zui 觜 20 Turtle l1 Ori Tue 20th Monkey
Shen 参 21 Three stars z Ori Wed 21st Gibbon
The Red Bird
of the South Jing 井 22 Well m Gem Thurs 22nd Tapir
Gui 鬼 23 Ghost q Cnc Fri 23rd Goat
Liu 柳 24 Willow d Hyd Sat 24th Stag
Xing 星 25 Star a Hyd Sun 25th Horse
Zhang 张 26 Extended Net e1Hyd/m Hyd Mon 26th Ox
Yi 翼 27 Wings a Crt Tue 27th Snake
Zhen 珍 28 Chariot g Crv Wed 28th Worm

45. The Sun and Moon
 Because one of the main purposes of
astronomical observation in ancient China was
timekeeping, the sun and moon were very
important.
 The Chinese used a calendar system based on
the phases of the moon (measured through
observing the position of the stars in the
twenty-eight mansions) and the time of the
solar year, or season.

46.  The sun and moon have developed a particular iconography in China.
The red sun is often pictured with a three-legged crow and the moon
features a white hare or rabbit, pounding a pestle and mortar.

47.  The mid-Autumn, or Moon Festival is perhaps the second most
important traditional festival in China after Chinese New Year. It is held
on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month when the moon is said
to be at its largest, roundest, and brightest of the year.

48. Mesoamerica
Main article: Maya calendar and
Aztec calendar
 Maya astronomical codices include detailed tables for
calculating phases of the Moon, the recurrence of
eclipses, and the appearance and disappearance
of Venus as morning and evening star.
"El Caracol" observatory temple at Chichen Itza, Mexico.

49.  The Maya based their calendrics in the carefully calculated cycles of
the Pleiades, the Sun, the Moon, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Mars
 they had a precise description of the eclipses as depicted in
the Dresden Codex, as well as the ecliptic or zodiac, and the Milky
Way was crucial in their Cosmology
 To the ancient Maya, Venus was the patron of war and many
recorded battles are believed to have been timed to the motions of
this planet

50. Medieval Middle East
Main article:Astronomy in medieval Islam
 The Arabic and the Persian world
under Islam had become highly cultured, and
many important works of knowledge
from Greek astronomy and Indian
astronomy and Persian astronomy were
translated into Arabic, used and stored in
libraries throughout the area
Arabic astrolab from 1208 AD.

51.  Other Muslim advances in astronomy included the collection and
correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant
problems in the Ptolemaic model, the development of the universal
latitude-independent astrolabe by Arzachel,
 the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, Ja'far
Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir's belief that the heavenly
bodies and celestial spheres were subject to the same physical
laws as Earth

52.  In the 10th century, Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi) carried out
observations on the stars and described their
positions, magnitudes, brightness, and colour and drawings for
each constellation in his Book of Fixed Stars.
 He also gave the first descriptions and pictures of "A Little Cloud"
now known as the Andromeda Galaxy

53. Medieval Western Europe
Science in the Middle Ages
 Western Europe entered the Middle Ages with
great difficulties that affected the continent's
intellectual production.
 The advanced astronomical treatises
of classical antiquity were written in Greek, and
with the decline of knowledge of that
language, only simplified summaries and
practical texts were available for study
9th century diagram of the positions of the seven
planets on 18 March 816.