data and graphs information.

1. Seminar on
DATA AND GRAPHS
INTEGRAL UNIVERSITY
BY: UNDER GUIDANCE OF:
SHAIKH ZOHRAMNEENA MR.PARAMDEEP BAGGA
M.PHARM (PHARMACOLOGY)
1ST YEAR

2. INTRODUCTION
 WHAT IS DATA?
DATA IS INFORMATION THAT HAS BEEN
TRANSLATED INTO FORM THAT IS MORE
CONVENIENT TO MOVE OR PROCESS.
 WHAT IS DATA COLLECTION?
DATA COLLECTION IS A SYSTEMATIC
APPROACH TO GATHERING
INFORMATION FROM A VARIETY OF
SOURCES TO GET A COMPLETE AND
ACCURATE PICTURE OF AN AREA OF
INTEREST.

3. PURPOSE of Data Collection.
 To obtain information.
 To keep on record
 To make decisions about important issues.
 To pass information on to others.

4. PRIMARY
SECONDARY

5. PRIMARY DATA
Primary data are collected by investigator from
personal experimental studies.
Secondary Data
Data obtained from some secondary sources such
as from journals, magazines, reports etc.

6. Collection of primary data
1. Direct Personal Observation: Trained and skilled
investigator
establishes personal contact and puts simple and direct
questions to them.
2. Indirect oral observation: Investigator prepares a set of
questions which are indirectly related to sub-matter and
are asked to different people their answers are recorded.
3. Information through local agencies: Information is
collected through local agents or correspondents. They are
instructed to send their own estimates of a particular
phenomenon.
4. By schedule and questionnaire: Questionnaire is list of
questions directly or indirectly related to the field of
enquiry made by investigator.

7.  Collected by two ways
1.Mailed
questionnaire
2.Scheduled
through
investigator

8.  Collection of secondary data
1.Published data
 Published thesis
 Government reports
 International reports
 By-product of administration
 Commission’s report
2.Unpublished data:
Some of the organizations, research institutes etc.
collect data but they normally do not publish it, like
unpublished thesis submitted for the award of Ph.D.

9.  PREPARATION OF DATA
 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
TABLE
 WHAT IS FREQUENCY?
FREQUENCY IS THE NUMBER OF TIMES A
CHARACTER OR ATTRIBUTE HAS APPEARED IN
THE COLLECTED DATA.
 WHAT IS FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION?
THE ARRANGEMENT AND PRESENTATION OF
CONDENSED DATA INTO CLASSES IS CALLED
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION. THESE CLASSES ARE
ALSO CALLED CLASS INTERVALS.

10. Sr. no. No. of pea
grains per
pod
frequency Frequency
distribution
1. 1 3
2. 2 3 2
3. 3 4
4. 4 4 2
5. 5 7 1
6. 6 5 1
Types of Frequency Distribution Tables
Frequency distribution table
Overlapping frequency table.
Non-overlapping frequency table.

11. Number of pods or
variable
Frequency
15 1
16 2
17 2
18 2
19 2
20 2
21 2
22 3
23 3
24 3
25 4
26 5
27 6
28 7
29 9
Simple frequency table of pea pods

12. No. of pods in class
intervals
No. of plants in
frequency
15-17 3
17-19 4
19-21 4
21-23 5
23-25 6
25-27 9
27-29 13
Overlapping frequency table

13. Non-overlapping frequency table
No. of pods in class
intervals
No. of plants in frequency
15-17 5
18-20 6
21-23 8
24-26 12
27-29 22

14.  Bar diagram
 Bar diagram is for diagrammatic representation of data.
 It permits a visual comparison of data by displaying the
magnitude of each category as a horizontal or vertical bar.
 It consists of equally spaced vertical rectangular bars of
equal width placed on a common horizontal base line.
 The height of rectangle is proportional to the frequencies.
 Use for representing and analyzing discontinuous qualitative
variables as hair color, gender etc.

15.  Types of bar diagram
1)Simple bar diagram.
2)Multiple or Grouped bar diagram.
3)Divided or Component bar diagram.

16. 1.Simple bar diagram: It is used to compare two or more items related
to a variable. In simple bar diagram the bars are usually arranged to
relative magnitude of items.
Limitations: Simple bar diagram has limitation that only one variable can be
represented on it.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1 2 3 4
Species
Percent
Frequency
Of plant
Simple bar diagram representing percentage frequency of plant species in a
Particular area

17. 2.Multiple or Grouped bar diagram: A multiple bar diagram
is used when a number of items are to compared in respect of two, three or
more values. They can be prepared either by changing the width of the bar or by
using different colors for each character.
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
2001-02 2002-03 2003-04
Multiple bar diagram of the number of students in various faculties
In a college in different years.
Number of
students
Years

18. 3. Divided or component bar diagram: A divided or
component bar diagram can be formed by dividing a single bar into
several components part with the help of different colors or designs. A
single bar represents the aggregate value whereas the component parts
represent the component values of the aggregate value.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
irish british mainland
european
rest of
world
senior
adult
child

19. Histogram
It is graphic representation of continuous
quantitative data in which frequencies are
represented in the form of bars.
The histogram is used for continuous variables
which are grouped into classes of equal width.
The histogram consists of a series of rectangles,
one for each values of variable.
The area or more specially the height of each
rectangle is proportional to the frequency.

20. Class intervals Frequency
60-64 3
65-69 3
70-74 8
75-79 10
80-84 5
85-89 2
Frequency distribution of heights of black cherry trees.

21. Pie chart
 Used for percentage distribution
 Different components are represented by means of sectors
of a circle.
 Angles of sectors are proportional to respective values.
 This sort of representation is called a pie chart.
 Also known as circular chart or sector chart.
Sr. no. Item Percentage
expenditure
Contribution out of 360o
1. Food 50 360x50/100
2. House 10 360x10/100
3. Clothing 10 360x10/100
4. Education 10 360x10/100
5. Entertainment 5 360x5/100
6. Saving 10 360x10/100
7. Miscellaneous 5 360x5/100
Percentage expenditure of middle class family

22. Pie chart diagram of data in table.
Sales
food
house
clothing
education
entertainment
saving
miscellaneos

23. Frequency curves
When number of observations is very large
and the class intervals are of small widths,
the frequency polygon tends to lose its
angulation and produces a smooth curve
which is known as Frequency Curve.
Provides a continuous graph.
Frequency curve can be obtained by
drawing a smooth free hand curve through
the vertices of frequency polygon.

24. Types of Frequency Curves
1.Symmetrical curves: Bell shaped curves. In these
distributions the frequency increases up to the
middle item and then decreases in the same ratio.
Also termed as normal curve.

25. 2. Moderately symmetrical or skewed
curve: These curves show skewness.
They have more frequencies on one side
than on other side. In this one tail is
always longer than other.

26.  Two Types.
a.Positive skewed curve: When the longer
tail is on positive side means at right side
the frequency curve is termed as Positive
skewed curve.
b. Negative skewed curve: When the longer
tail is on negative side means at left side
the frequency curve is termed as
Negative skewed curve.

27. 3. Extremely asymmetrical or J- shaped
curve: The class frequencies when run
up to a maximum at either of ends of
the range is termed as asymmetrical or
J- shaped curve.
 It may be negative or positive J- shaped
curve.

28. 4. U- shaped curve: In these types of curve
the maximum frequency is at the ends of the
range and a minimum towards center.

29. 5. Bimodal curve: The frequency
distribution shows two curves. It usually
includes two populations, each showing
a partial normal distribution.

30. 6.Mixed curves: Sometimes some
distributions increases and decreases
and again the same process is
repeated.
Such distributions are termed as mixed
curves.

31. References
 Dr. ARUN KUMAR. ,“ PHARMACEUTICAL BIOSTATISTICS”,
KRISHNA PRAKASHAN MEDIA, 1-9
 VEER BALA RASTOGI. ,” FUNDAMENTALS OF BIOSTATISTICS”, ANE BOOK
PUBLICATION, 35-70
 www.wikepedia.com

32. Thank You