This book of physics teaches all ages about particles and a little bit of strings and their quantum superpositions form by oscillation. Read this to get smarter.

1.
------ParticlesinaNutshell------
Part1:ElementaryParticles
~~~~BOSONS,LEPTONS,QUARKS,STRINGS~~~~
Allby:MartinLiu
LastupdatedinAprilof2016

2. ELEMENTARYPARTICLES
Particles​areballsthatmakeupstuffcalled​matter​.Matteris
allaroundyou.Itisyourself,yourbook,yourpencil,oreven
fire.Onethingthatmatterisn’tis​energy​,whichisalsostuff
aroundyouexceptitmovesmatter.Withoutenergyallthings
wouldn’texist.Thinkofgrammarforthesetwocommoneveryday
things.Energyistheverbwhilematteristhenoun.
Letmegetthisstraight,matterisNOTtrueenergy.Matter
carriesenergyandgoesthroughreactionstoreleaseenergyout
ofmatteritself,sometimesbytransferenceofenergytoother
formsofenergythroughreactionsandsometimesoftransference
ofmasstoenergyintheE=mc​2​
equation.Furthermore,itisthe
energymovingthroughmatterinawavenotmattermovingthrough
energy.Thisisanimportantruleforlearningaboutparticle
physics.
Nowbacktoparticles.Youmightknowathingortwoabout
the​atom​orthe​molecule​.Theymakeupmatterlikeyourclothing
andstuff.Atomscomefromthegreekwordatomosmeaning
somethingtoosmallbedivided.Atomsthoughcanstillbe
divided.Atomsareparticlesmadeupofotherparticles.
Anotherthingyoumightwanttoknowaboutparticlesis
charge​.Forcharge,there’s​negative​,​positive​and​neutral​.You
canalsoexpresschargeinnumberslike-⅔,like+⅓,orlike0.
Neutralparticlesareprettystablebythemselvesandcanrarely
bedetectedforthistypeofcharge.Positiveandnegativeones
attract.Particlesalsohaveotherdistinctcharacteristicssuch
astheirown​spin​.Nowletmetellyou,allparticleshavean
eviltwinwithoppositechargecalled​antiparticles​.Particles
andtheireviltwinbombardandthenKABLOOIE!
Assaidbeforeatomsaremadeupofotherparticles.These
arecalled​subatomic​particles.Theeverydayatomyouseeismade
upofthesesubatomicparticlescalledthe​proton​,​neutron​,and
electron​.Theseparticlesareevenfurtherdividedinto
categoriescalled​elementary​and​composite​particles.Elementary
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3. ELEMENTARYPARTICLES
particlesarethemostbasicofallparticleswhilecomposite
particlesareonesmadeupofotherparticlesandaren’tall
subatomic.Thereisalsoanothergroupcalledthe
quasi-particles​.
Thosearethemanyparticlesandtheirproperties.Inthis
book,I’llonlytalkaboutelementaryparticles.
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4. ELEMENTARYPARTICLES
TABLEOFCONTENTS
ElementaryParticles
ElementaryFermions
ElementaryBosons
HiggsBoson
AreTheseParticlesReallyElementary?
Isthisall?
Thisbookwasmadeentirely,
writingandcover,byMartin
Liu.
Researchingandplagiarizingis
allowedonlyifyouput“MARTIN
ISSMART”asyoursource.
LOL
Insteadyoushouldput
“ParticlePhysicsina
Nutshell”asyousource
Orelseprosecutionwithafine
of
$1,000,000,000,000,000,000.00
toMartinorJailforeternity.
RESTRICTIONSAPPLYANDARE
REALLYSERIOUS
Nonfictuousforallages
FOR
ROHANKARUNARATNE
TOMAKEHIMEVENSMARTER
LOL
ACTUALLYSERIOUS!
pagethe3​th

5. ELEMENTARYPARTICLES
Elementary Particles
Peopleshouldlearnaboutelementaryparticlesfirst.Theyare
themostbasicandfundamentalparticles.Theycreatethe
compositeparticlesallwiththeownuniquecharacteristicssuch
asspinandcharge.Youmightnotknowspinthough.
Spinisatypeofrotating​momentum​called​angularmomentum​.
Youmightneedtothinkofabathtub.Ifyoufillthebathtub
withwaterallthewayuptothetopandyougoinsideofit.You
displace​someofthewater.Particlesalsodisplacethingswhen
spinning.Oneparticlescoulddisplacemorethananother.
Youmightknow​inertia​,aforceofanobject'sresistance
towardmovementlikewhensomebodydrivesacarathighspeedand
suddenlystops.Yep,that’swhysomebodyinventedseatbelts.
Whatdothosetwothingshavetodowithmomentumwhichis
masstimesvelocity.Well,thisismomentumwhenanobjectis
rotatingorrevolving.TheEarthneedthismomentumtorotateand
revolve.Wemightnotbelivingifitweren’tforangular
momentum.
Now,theinertiaoftheparticletimesthedisplacementis
spin.“WhydoIneedtoknowspin?”youmightsay.Well,spinis
importantforcategorizingtwofundamentalgroupselementary
particles.Thiscalculationusingtwospecialunitsformassand
velocitycreatesanegativeorpositivenumber,sometimesa
fractionlike½orsometimeslike1.Thespinbeinganon
integralnumberoranintegercreatesthetwofundamentalgroups
ofparticles.
Elementary Fermions
Fermions​areoneofthosetwofundamentalgroupsof
particlesallwithspinsofnonintegers.12ofthemare
elementarywhile12arecomposite.Thisparticularfamilyis
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6. ELEMENTARYPARTICLES
namedaftertheparticlephysicistEnricoFermi.Whatallofthe
elementaryparticlesinthefamilyhaveincommonisan½spin.
Therearetwosubcategoriesofthefermions,the​leptons​and
the​quarks​.Whenyoulookatthetitlepageyoucanseepurple
andgreencirclesofachart.Thischartiscalled​theStandard
ModelofElementaryParticles​.Thepurplesarethequarksandthe
greensaretheleptons.Prettycoolcolorcodingright?
Youcandividetheseelementaryparticlesagaininto
categoriescalled​generations​basedoffofthecolumns.The
numberofthegenerationisproportionaltothemassofthe
particle.Thechartalsohasrows.
Therowsfortheleptonsandthequarkclassify​type​.Type
isbasedoffofcharge.Oh,Iforgottomention,chargeseparates
quarksandleptons.Quarkshavechargelike-⅓(down)and+⅔(up)
whileleptonsonlyhave-1(charged)and0(neutral).Thequarks
with+⅔chargeisonthetopwhilethe-⅓chargedquarksareon
thebottom.That’swhysomequarksarecalledupquarks,some
top,somedown,andsomebelow.Itisallbasedoffofthis
chart.
Forleptons,themodelplaysalittledifferent.Thetopis
neutralhence​neutrino​andthebottomisnegative.Neutrinosare
massless.Youmightknowwhatanelectronissothebottomis
alsoknownas​electron-like​withthe​tau​andthe​muon​andwith
theirlittleelectronbuddy.Thesearetheelementaryfermions.
Elementary Bosons
Nowyoulearnedaboutfermionswe’renowoftoelementary
bosons​.They’reanotheroneofthefundamental2.Allofthem
bosonsaretheblueonesonthestandardmodel,knownas​force
carriers​and​gaugebosons​.Therearealso​higgs-bosons​addedto
thebosonswhichwasjustfoundbytheCERNin2013.The
higgs-bosonisitsowntype,notrelatedtoanyofthegauge
ones.Therearealsotheoreticalparticles.
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7. ELEMENTARYPARTICLES
Thereare3basicforcesthattheycarry.Theseforcesgive
outlight,holdparticlestogetherandformsa​betaradioactive
decay​.Theyarethephotons,thegluons,andthewandzbosons.
The​photon​isaparticleyoumightalreadyknowbeing
massless,spin-1,andneutralincharge.Theforceitcarriesis
the​electromagneticforce​,aforceinwhichmakeslight.Itis
oneofthe4fundamentalforcesoftheuniverse.Allthereal
gaugebosonscarrythosefundamentalforcesexcept​gravity​.Well
gravityishypotheticallycarriedbythehypotheticalparticles
of​gravitons​.
Anotherforceisthe​strongforce​.Thestrongforceisthe
strongestforceintheentireuniverseinuncountableamountsof
powertheorizedbyEnricoFermi.Itbindsneutronsandprotons
togethersoitisimportantforfusion.Thecarrierofthisforce
isthe​gluon​.Thegluonhasthesamepropertiesofphotonsexcept
force.Anotherpropertyofthegluonisthatitcombineswith
quarkstoformararestateofmattercalled​quark-gluonplasma​.
Okay,letustalkaboutanotherforcecalledgravitation
eventhoughitsforcecarrierisonlytheoreticalbutthe
higgs-bosonwasalsooncetheoreticalandnowreal.Right?
Dependentonmassoftheobject(notthebosons),gravitypulls.
Gravitationiscarriedbygravitons.InSeptemberof2015,we,
humans,detectedtwomassiveblackholessuckingthemselves
apart.Theyreleasedwhatareknownas​gravitywaves​.This
supportsbyahugelotforgravitonsbutdoesn’tcompletelyprove
existencebeingmorelikethreelegsonachairandthegraviton
sittingontop.Thechairmightfallandbeforgotten.Ifthe
chairstands,gravitonswouldbetheonlymasslessspin-2gauge
bosonthatisneutrallycharged.
We’reonthelastforce,the​weakforce​.Tounderstandthe
weakforceyoumustknowaboutbetadecays.Betadecayisin
whichradiationtransformsneutronsinatomicnucleitoprotons,
positrons​,andelectronneutrinos.Positronsarethe
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8. ELEMENTARYPARTICLES
antiparticlesofelectrons.Therearenotonebuttwobosons
namestheWandZbosons.Theyhavemassunlikemostoftheother
gaugebosons.
Withthesebosons,thereisanothertheory.Itiscalledthe
GrandUnifiedTheory​.TheGUTstatesthatatthebeginningofthe
universetherewasonceatimewhenthe3forceswerecombined
intoonesingletypeforce.Therewerealso2particlesthatwere
hypothesizedtocarrytheforce,XandYbosons.Ifexisting,
theywouldbothhave1-spinandbegauge.Unliketheother
bosons,theyhavecharge.Xhas+1⅓andYhas+⅓.
Higgs Boson
WhyamIeventalkingabouttheHiggsBoson.Wasn’titsupposed
tobetalkedaboutinthelastchapter?Ifitwas,thenthe
chapterwillbecomesuperlongbecausethehiggsbosonismore
complicatedthantheothers.Forstartersyoumustknowaboutthe
QuantumFieldTheory​(QFT)andhowparticlesbehavein​fields​.
Fieldsinphysicsarewhatforcescreate.Youmightknowthe
magneticfieldforinstance.Amagnetismadeupofspecialatoms
withconditionsjustrighttodospecialstuffwithphotonsand
attractstuff.Thisstuffstuffisn’tsciencebutinanutshell.
Anyways,asiron,nickel,orcobaltbasedstuffgetscloser,the
attractiongrowsexponentiallyhigherandwithbeingmuchcloser
morephotonstoo.
InQFTparticlesarecalled​fieldquanta​,thingswithlots
ofenergywheninafield.Inthismagneticfieldforexample
reactingwiththephotonsmakesthingsexcited.Thefieldslike
thatseemnon-constant.Theyhaveseveralupanddownsof
attractionunlikethisfieldthatI’mgoingtotalkabout.
Thishiggsbosonisgeneratedbythe​higgsfield​andcarries
the​higgsmechanism​,theforceinwhichgeneratesthehiggs
field.Thehiggsfieldisconstantandisascalartypefield.
Scalarisatypeofforcefield.Therearefourbasictypesof
pagethe7​th

9. ELEMENTARYPARTICLES
fieldssuchasscalar,spinor,vector,andtensor.Asyoumight
seethemagneticfieldattractsstuff.Whatdoesthehiggsfield
do?
Thehiggsfieldgivesmasstoparticles.Whatismassas
peoplemightsay.Youprobablylearnedthatitistheamountof
matterinanobject.ThisfieldgivesmasstotheZandWbosons
andbreaksrulesofphysics.BygivingmasstoWandZ,itbreaks
lawswhileexplainingwhytheweakforceisweak.That’swhy
physicistscallittheinfamousboson.
Wait…What?!Whyistheparticleinfamous?Isn’tthefield
andmechanismsupposedtobeinfamous?Whatdoestheparticle
evendo?Althoughthefieldcan’t,thisspin-0heavyweightscalar
bosoncreatedbythefieldactuallyhassomepowerinenergyand
canattractotherparticlestoit.Theattractedparticles
“steal”thehiggsboson’smass.Thehiggsfieldgeneratesthe
higgsbosonanditsmass.Thefielddoesn’tdirectly“give”
particlesmassbutindirectlygeneratestheHiggsto“give”mass
usingthemechanism.Thisisthehiggsbosoninanutshell.
Are These Particles Really Elementary?
Thereisonemainquestion,aretheseparticlesreally
elementary?Sometheoriessuchasthestringtheoryandthe
neutrinotheoryoflightdisprovetheseparticlesbeing
elementary...orevenparticles!
Thestringtheoryisatheorythatusesstringsinsteadof
particles.Astringisaonedimensionalthingparticlelike
object.Thestringhasaspecialpropertythatmakesitvibrate.
Whenitvibratesinonewayitbecomesanelectronandin
another,itmightbeaquark,gluon,oratau.Thisisknownasa
quantumsuperposition​.Superpositionsarewhenonethingmightbe
twoormorethings-holdingtwoormorepositions.Thisisalso
themaindifferencebetweenregularcomputersandquantum
computers.Regularcomputerstransferdatathroughregularbits
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10. ELEMENTARYPARTICLES
inwhichitis0OR1.Quantumcomputersusequbitsbeing0AND
1.Thisisthestringtheoryinshort.
Thereisanothertheory,theneutrinotheoryoflight.In
thistheory,photonsareactually​oniumexoticatoms​madeupof
neutrinosandantineutrinos.Oniumexoticatomsarecomposite
particlesmadeupofanparticleanditsantiparticle.2spinsof
½,2chargesofzero,and2zeromassesaddupthetheexact
propertiesofphotons!Thoughofthatcalculation,manyparticle
physiciststhinkthistheoryisincorrectduetothedata
collectedbyEinsteinandhisgoodfriendBose.
Is this all?
Theremustbemuchmoreelementaryparticles.Thereis.Ionly
usedthestandardmodelandsomefamousparticletheories.Ialso
includedthestringtheory,quantumfield,andthegrand
unification.Therearemuchmorethingsbeingmuchharderto
understand.Itisnearlyimpossibletofitallthetheoriesand
particlesinthisnutshellforthisbook.
Thiselementaryparticlebookisnowfinished.Done.Ended.
Completed.Wrappedup
pagethe9​th