Architecture of Bengal

Architecture of
BENGAL
A r c h 4 1 0 1 | P a r t B
Md. Samiul Sabbir Islam
Lecturer
Department of Architecture
Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology

Unique Characteristics
TheContributingFactors

Geography
The Undeniable Catalyst

The Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta (also
known as the Brahmaputra Delta, the
Sunderbans Delta, or the Bengal
Delta) is a river delta in the Bengal region
of the South Asia, consisting of
Bangladesh and the Indian state of West
Bengal. It is the world's largest delta, and
empties into the Bay of Bengal. It is also
one of the most fertile regions in the
world, thus earning the nickname The
Green Delta. The delta stretches from the
Hooghly River on the west to the Meghna
River on the east. It is approximately 354
km (220 mi) across at the Bay of Bengal.
Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) and Haldia in
India and Mongla and Chittagong in
Bangladesh are the principal seaports of
the delta.
A number of large rivers flow through the
Brahmaputra Delta, including the Padma
(main distributary of the Ganges) and the
Jamuna (main distributary of the
Brahmaputra), which merge and then join
the Meghna before entering the sea.
The Bengal Delta

Settings: Jungles | Determinants: Rivers | Limits: Natural Barriers | Backdrop: Indian Sub-continent
• Located between 27º9’ and 20º50’ north latitude and 86º35’ and 92º30’ east
longitudes.
• The largest Delta on Earth.
• The hostile nature, great rivers and flood, jungles, marshy land,
uncertainty of life-systems, health hazards, and mosquito constitutes Bengal’s
Geography.
• Natural barriers played a vital part in the making of Bengal’s history by
determining the easiest and logical access for the invading and adventurous
outsiders from North-West. Let us notice the situation at the periphery:
• North: Kochbihar, Meghalaya – Garo hills (Hilly Terrain)
• East: Assam, Tripura – Garo hills, Tripura marshes (Hilly Terrain,
Jungle, Marshy land)
• West: West Bengal – Rajmahal (More or less plain land with subtle
variation of contour)
• South: Bay of Bengal (Sea)

• The connection with central and northern India is through a
long narrow corridor along the Ganges plain. The pass way is
the narrowest near a place named Teligiri.
• In the North-West of the country, in between the Garo hills on
the north and Rajmahal on the west, there lies a wide sweeping
gap called ‘the Duars’, covering most of the northern districts
of Bangladesh.
• Through this gap, the Brahmaputra (Yamuna), the Ganges
(Padma) and Tista flew into Bangladesh and also the ancient
Himalayan people named Kochas, Mechas, Kambojas etc.
• Clear evidences of mixing and exchange of culture are found at
the periphery of now-defined Bangladesh (Assam, Arakan
etc.)

• Geography always determined its political fate; Bengal was
seldom kept under any foreign rule or doctrine for a very long
time due to its special characteristics of location.
• People who tried to rule Bengal from a very distant place,
hardly succeeded. Anyone that became good ruler in Bengal
had to fuse into it, with its culture and in fact, the whole of it
(examples from all Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim, European and
Pakistani rulers can be drawn).
• People who had other intents than to rule (migrants,
missionaries, travellers, peaceful agricultural settlers) were
always welcomed by the locals and at times, their culture had
been partially/fully absorbed by the locals.
• Persistent urge for independence (in the true sense) made
Bengal a difficult place to rule for rulers who were mostly
outsiders.

By 1528, Pathan Sultans started calling this region
“ ”
But before this foreign tourists already used the term
“ ”
British rulers used the name
“ ”
The Portuguese used the name
“ ”
Other accounts speculate that the name is derived from Venga (Bôngo), which
came from the Austric word "Bonga" meaning the Sungod
An interesting theory of the origin of the name is provided by Abu'l-Fazl in his Ain-i-Akbari. According to him,
“The original name of Bengal was Bung, and the suffix "al" came to be added to it from the fact that the
ancient rajahs of this land raised mounds of earth 10 feet high and 20 in breadth in lowlands at the foot of
thehills which were called "al".

Geology
An Account of Wind, Water and Clay

• ‘Amorphous’ nature of land: characterizes the region’s climate,
topography, ecology and hydrology.
• Vedic Aryans considered this part of the land as ‘Impure’ and
also demanded ritual purification for every individual that visits
that land.
• Imperial Mughals called it ‘Bhati’ - indication to its obvious
geographical constitution.
• Turks, Afghans and Persians considered it as ‘dozkh pur-i-
niamat’ (hell full of fortune).
• 3 Arterial rivers (Padma, Brahmaputra and Meghna) divide the
Bangladesh mainland into several ‘Islands’:
- The ‘Varind’: solid red earth, westernmost and northern part
- Madhupur (Dhaka/Mymensingh): red earth, central part
- Surma Valley: Ancient land, easternmost part
- Near Estuary: Newer land - swampy mangrove, southernmost part
- Hilly tracts: Contour terrain, south-eastern part

 Rivers determine the fate of the land as they constantly shift and change
course.
 Rivers played a dual part as fortune makers and destructive as well in all
sense; yet they guided the formation of the civilization.
 Land is formed primarily by silt deposits and constantly being shaped and
reshaped by rivers.
 Historically silt made it a prosperous land as it made cultivation easier,
rivers produced enough protein and jungles produced enough to burn.
 Occasional floods re-energized the land by providing an extra coat of silt
on a regular basis.
 Outsiders other than the native were attracted to this land very easily due
to this ease of living.
 Silty clay was the natural, obvious and logical choice as a building
material.
It was the base material (in accordance with bamboo, thatch, gol-patta, palm
leaves, jute stalk, timber etc. that grows also in plenty on this particular
formation of geology) for building.

• Stone is scarce in most of the areas due to its geological construction.
• Soft, plastic and ever-present clay is easy to mould both by means of hand or
forma and is easy to build simple enclosures.
• It is very easy to give any desired shape and size according to particular need.
• Clay can also be sun-dried or burnt to impart solidity and durability.
• Historically clay has been extensively used to produce bricks and terra-cotta.
• Bricks were used to produce monumental wall surfaces (Mosques, Temples)
and terra-cotta panels and inscriptions were used to de-monumentalize large,
unbroken surfaces.
• Contradictory desires for solidity yet permeability was achieved by using
brick and terra-cotta on the same surface.

Ancestry
The Ancient people of Bengal

• Negrito / (?)
(Andaman, Malaysia, Thailand)
• Proto-Australoid -
ভূ মিজ িুহালী িুন্ডা খেমিয়া
• Austric - Proto-Dravidians - -
• Dravidians – দ্রাবিড় (Indids, Melanids)
(Mediterranean – ভু িধ্যসাগরীয়)
• Aryans
Indo Europeans/Indo Iranians?)
• Vedda
Later……
Arabs(আরি), Turks(তুবকি), Iranians(ইরানী), Pathans(পাঠান),
Mughals(মুঘল), Portuguese ( ), British ( )…..
Austric = Astro-Asians/Australoid

• Farmers from fertile
crescent
(Persia/Aryans)
• Ancestral south Indian.
(Dravidians)
• Austroasiatic rice farmers
from southeast Asia.
(Proto-Australoids)
• Proto Indo European from
Eurasian steppes.
(Aryans)
• Tibeto-Burman speaking
east Asian.
The biggest chunk of our DNA is from
Farmers from fertile crescent or Neolithic
Iranian people. We also have a significant
amount of DNA from Austroasiatic rice
farmers and ancestral south Indians
followed by the proto indo European and
Tibeto-Burman.
The most ancient inhabitant of the
subcontinent were “the ancestral south
Indian” people. With the spread of rice
agriculture, Austroasiatic speaking rice
farmers from south-east Asia entered in
Bengal and got mixed with the locals. They
spread the language and culture and modern
day Santhal tribes are their descendants.
Meanwhile in the west of subcontinent proto
indo European people were “genetically”
absorbed by a larger Indus valley people after
they successfully spread the culture and
language.
We Bengalis are a mixed race of 5
different ancestry

Proto-Australoids
Veddid Kolid
Middle And East IndiaSinhalese (Sri Lanka)

Aryans
Alpine Nordic
Brachycephalic
হ্রস্ব-কপাল
বাঙালী
Dolichocephalic
দীর্ঘ -কপাল
ভারতীয়
Nordic Aryans are the bearer of Vedic Culture

Are result of mix between
1. Indo Aryan language speaking people from somewhere in
north India (Farmers from fertile crescent + proto Indo-
European)
2. Local Austroasiatic tribes (like Santhals)
3. Tibeto-Burman tribes (like Chakmas).
Modern day Bengalis

Ancient Bengal Regions
Gaurh
Rarh
Varendra/ Varind
Harikel
Vanga
Samatat

• The oldest land in Bengal (according to Geological facts) is the
tertiary ranges of the Himalayas (Sylhet, Comilla,
Chittagong).
• Excavations in the hilly regions of Comilla shows the presence of
prehistoric man, both from Paleolithic and Neolithic period
(hand axe fabricated from petrified wood has been found there).
Evidences were also found by amateurs in the 1950’s in the hilly
areas of Sitakund, Chittagong, Rangamati and Comilla.
Prehistoric Period:

Ancient Period:
• Evidences form Bronze age have been found in the now West Bengal in Birbhum and Bardwan
districts (by the Rivers Ajay, Kunoor and Kopai)
• A site called ‘Pandu Rajar Dhibi’ has also been excavated by Ajay River which dates back to 1500
B.C. The site shows that those people used to produce rice for themselves, lived on occasional
hunting, built houses with mud-brick and stone, used terra-cotta and also were acquainted with
the use of Iron. There were also clues that they even had business relationship with distant places as
far as Crete.
• Vedic Aryans did not come to this region as they came to other parts of India, although they were
aware of some inhabitants living in this region (Pundra was one of them) and also mentioned them
as savages(অসুর). Purification was needed for everyone who visited there.
• Presence of many small kingdoms was evident in many tales of Mahabharata and Brahminical
literature.
• Greeks came to India at about 360 B.C. Aware of the presence of a mighty Empire named
‘Gangaridae’ – through which the Ganges descends into the sea.
• This was the time when the very little known Nanda dynasty was ruling the greater parts of India.

Mauryan Period: 3rd C B.C. - 3rd C A.D.
• Alexander was driven out of India by Chandragupta Maurya in the 3rd C B.C
.
• Evidences found in Mahasthan shows that Pundra took the name of
‘Pundravardhana Bhukti’ and became a part of Mauryan dynasty in the later
phase of it (during the reign of Ashoka). This dynasty also included
Karnasubarna (Murshidabad), Tamralipti (Hoogly), Samatata (South-East
Bengal) and many a Buddhist architectural piece were emerged in these places.
• Muslin was exported to distant lands from Tamralipti.
• Several names indicate the probable presence of a gold mine (Subarna bithi,
Subarna village at Dhaka, Sonaranga, Sonakandi) or it can be the metaphor for a
prosperous society.
• There could be other dynasties like Sungas, Kushans etc. that ruled different
parts of Bengal during and after the Mauryan period – Mahasthan shows such
evidences.
• Brahmans started to come to Bengal

Gupta Period: 300 A.D. – 7th C A.D.
• Chandragupta laid the capital at Magadha (south of Bihar) at 300 A.D.
• Except Samatata, all scattered kingdoms in Bengal came under one rule. After
the disintegration began in the dynasty (middle of 6 C), a number of independent
kingdoms emerged including Vanga and Gauda.
• Evidences of Hun/Tibetan hill tribe invasions are known at the declining times
of this dynasty.
• Shashanka was an independent king after the Gupta’s; his expansionist foreign
policy didn’t come to his help much.
• Brahmans kept coming to Bengal at higher rates
• Next hundred years of Bengal’s history is obscure: a lot of things happened –
Bengal was ruled for a period of time by the North Indian ruler Harshabardhan
followed by a series of foreign invasions by the Kanouj & the Kashmiries.

Chandra Dynasty: Later 7th C A.D. – Early 8th C A.D.
• Buddhist rulers of the Kingdom of Samatata (south-east
Bengal).
• Capital was at Vikrampur near Dhaka.
• Isolated and independent from prevailing Pala rulers.

Pala Period: 8th C A.D. – 10th C A.D.
• ‘Matsya-Nyaya’ was the ethical level – dominion of the stronger. Disorder and
chaos was the consequence.
• Gopala, a Buddhist from Varind was selected by the locals as a neutral ruler (although
some differ with it).
• . Conquered most of North India Helped to spread Buddism, built a number of
Buddist monasteries including Vikramshila Monastery, Bihar and the Somapura
Vihara, Paharpur.
• Sculpture, art flourished – Dhimana and Vitapala were prominent artists. Eminent
missionaries like Pandit Dharmapala & Atish Dipankar and scholars like Chakrapani &
Sandhyakar Nandi emerged as idols.
• Sura Kings from south-west established a separate dynasty and established
Brahminical revival.
“ ”

Sena Period: 10th C A.D. – 13th C A.D.
• Were petty feudal lords – took chance over a declining Pala dynasty and
eventually took control over the region.
• Orthodox Brahmins from the Deccan.
• Vallal Sena (1158-1179 A.D.) initiated ‘Caste system’ or ‘Kulinism’ amongst
Brahmins, Vaidyas and Kayasthas.
• The last recognized ruler was Laxman Sena who was a patron of scholars.

Delhi Sultanate: Mamluk→Khilji→Tughlaq→Sayyid→Lodi (1206-1526)
• Before and during, Islamic civilization was the most cosmopolitan civilization.
Multicultural and Pluralistic.
• The worm gear roller cotton gin was invented
• 37 instances of Hindu temples being desecrated or destroyed in India. In many
cases, the demolished remains, rocks and broken statue pieces of temples destroyed
by Delhi sultans were reused to build mosques and other buildings

Sultanate of Bengal: 1352–1538,1554–1576
• Monarchy based on the Abbasid Caliphate.
• Taka introduced as the official currency
• Persian as an official language and influence. Sufis.
• The most enduring legacy of the Bengal Sultanate is its architectural heritage. A
distinct Bengali-Islamic architecture developed during its reign, which combined
indigenous traditions with influences from Persia and Byzantium. It featured
multiple and single domed mosques with complex terracotta and stone
ornamentation.

Mughal Empire: 1526-1857
• Akbar propounded a syncretic religion in the latter part of his life called Dīn-i Ilāhī
• Built an extensive road system, created a uniform currency, and the unified the country
• Muslin and the textile industry
• Built Maktab schools in every province
• Mughal India was one of the three Islamic Gunpowder Empires
• Persian art and culture amalgamated with Indian art and culture
• The development of Mughlai Cuisine
• Mughal Architecture evolved with the influence of Indian architecture, and in turn
influenced the local architecture, most conspicuously in the palaces built by Rajputs and
Sikh rulers.
• Landscape and Mughal gardening

Nawabs of Bengal:
• Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah, betrayed in the Battle
of Plassey by Mir Jaffer

East India Company (British Colonial Rule):
• Colonial monopoly
• Zaminders and the permanent settlement
• Postal service, Telegraph, The Railway
• New ideologies, western progressive philosophy, individualism
• Printing Press
• Independence of India and Pakistan. Partition of Bengal

• A socio-religious reform movement during the nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries in the city of Kolkata by caste Hindus under the patronage of the
British Raj.
• Started with reformer and humanitarian Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833),
considered the "Father of the Bengal Renaissance", and ended with Asia's first
Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941)
• Marked the transition from 'medieval' to 'modern‘
• Other figures that were a part of it-
Swami Vivekanda, Jagadish Chandra Bosu, Satyendra Nath Bose
The Bengal Renaissance:

Ancient
Bengal
Classical
Bengal
Late
Classical
Medieval
Bengal
Early
Modern
Bengal
Modern
Bengal
•GaudaKingdom
•MallabhumKingdom
•PalaEra
•CholaandChalukyaInvasions
•ChandraDynasty
•SenaEmpire
•DevaKingdom
•DelhiSultanate
•BengalSultanate
•GaneshaDynasty
•HussainShahiDynasty
•BritishEastIndiaCompany
•BengalRenaissance
•Partition
•TheGreatLiberationWarof1971
•MughalEmpire
•HinduRaj
•NawabsofBengal
•MarathaInvasions
•Pre-HistoricBengal
•Gangaridai
Bengal Renaissance

Religion
Intervention vs Fusion

 Was a way to freedom from then prevailing Vedic social norms (Brahmins
possessed the sole authority over any practice of Philosophy, which was full
of hostility, indecency, magic and rituals).
 Offered a free-logical philosophy in a set full of after-life thoughts. It was
devoid of spiritual and after-life beliefs and provided material solutions
(of problems) through insight. It had no caste boundary, focused on
present (act) and was full of literary practice which was within the grasp of
common people, interested to acquire knowledge. He kept silent when asked
about existence of God or after-life
 Buddha often drew examples of a burning lamp (which burns away fuel) and
exhausts by imparting fire and smoke. The inner truth is its momentary
state and change. NIRVANA is the ultimate state of it (in fact, anything).
Drastic change occurs when anything is at the state of NIRVANA. He
stressed on relativity (nothing is stagnant, everything is neutral and without
spirit). Every creation is relative – one perishes to give way to another.

 4 noble truths of Buddhism:
1.Despair/ sorrow is true (they exist)
2.There are obvious reasons behind them
3.It is possible to resolve despair/sorrow
4.There are Definite ways to resolve them
 Buddha said: Material world is uncertain, fragile, neutral and full of sorrow –
act of man is devoid of knowledge and wisdom that leads to desire for
materialistic approach and eventually ends in everlasting sorrow and despair
 Any act without desire can bring an end to this state of despair/sorrow
 A way of keeping away from all these is to focus at serving the creation
(not the creator)

• Chinese travelers (came to Bangladesh between 5th -7th C AD) narrated about
a large number of monasteries, shrines and Stupas, although they are now very
difficult to recognize in their ruins. Hiuen Tsang described about
Pundrabardhana, which had 20 Viharas and Ashokan Stupas and about
Samatata, which had 30 monasteris and Stupas
• Introduction of Buddhism in Bengal during Ashoka (273-232 BC) as it was a
part of his vast empire.
• Bengal being in close proximity with Kapilavastu (Nepal, the birthplace of
Gautama), attracted the attention of Ashoka
• Following the tradition, Buddhism constantly got patronage from later royal
dynasties (Palas, Khadgas, Chandras and Devas) after Ashokan rule was over
• Under the evangelistic Pala and Chandra kings, the masses in the countryside
embraced a polytheistic kind of Buddhism, transforming it radically from
the much simpler and nobler lesson into a tantric cult

• The moral teachings of Gautama has been almost forgotten and the very
essence had been disturbed beneath the glittering mass of metaphysical
subtleties (fusion with Vedic order)
• During this period of the Palas, Buddhism became a dynamic
international force (from Tibet in the north to the islands of the Malayan
Peninsula to the south)
• Mahayana practice (figurative representation of Buddha, introduced by
Tibetans/Chinese) gave rise to mystical explanations and eventually made its
way to gradual absorption into resurgent (upcoming) Hindu religion, which
accepted Buddha as the 9th incarnation of Vishnu
• Two major types of Monuments-
1.Stupa
2.Vihara

• During 15th and 16th C AD, Bengal saw a profound change in politics, society,
religion & culture. This phase coincides with the golden times of the
independent Sultans and later the introduction of the Mughals.
• Development of vernacular (popular) literary tradition marked the
upcoming wave of Hindu revivalism.
• The combination of Muslim with Hindu elements has been the main
feature of Bengali Culture. It was a strategic decision making where the Sultans
used to patronize the Hindus (to ensure political stability through various
contributions - even literature, Epics and Puranas were translated into Bangla
including the Ramayana. Following these translations - verses, romantic &
secular tales of Gods and Goddesses like Krishna, Chandi, and Manasha were
enchanted and the characters were popularized). A dynamic association began
this way.
• The teachings of Chaitanya (1486-1533 AD) played an important role in
Hindu revivalism. He used to call his religious teachings as ‘Gauriya
Vaishnavism’ in which he focused on a democratic reorganization of
Hindu society by abolishing widespread caste system and removing distinction
between Brahmins and other classes (Muslim influence?)

• Common people, who constituted the larger part of the society, easily picked this
Monotheistic (concept of a single God) religion; ‘Bhakti (devotion)’ was the key
element of it. Chanting the name of Krishna and dancing accompanied by
musical instruments - was the primary way spiritual attainment.
• Most temples built this particular phase were dedicated to Krishna and Radha
(and their love affair; it is because Chaitanya often talked about love and it was
the main spirit of his religion).
• Attracted the attention of the lower castes and even the tribal; Hindu revivalism
lies deep into the rise of the commoners, the vernacular (literature, architecture
etc.).
• Temples were the main form of transformation of social/cultural idioms.
Everyday life was depicted in expensive terra-cotta. At the later half of the 18th C,
temples were built with cheaper stucco on outer walls (reflection of existing
economic condition)
• Temple building was a means of acquiring influence and prestige. During Sultans
and prior to that, Kings and Landlords used to build temples. In later phases, it was
a symbol of status for upcoming entrepreneurs too (who used to make money
through foreign trade as 18th C experienced the beginning of active foreign trade; the presence
of European traders from Portugal, Holland, France and England were increasing this time).

• Temples this time were built on trade routes which symbolized acquired wealth
(new businessmen, entrepreneurs, higher class government employees of the
Colonial masters ,‘Zamindars’). Inscriptions found on almost every temple justify
this. The rise of the middle class.
• Some of the temples promoted occasions (fair, procession etc.) and large
gathering spaces were dedicated around them for interaction (dolmancha,
rasamancha) - mostly open and raised.
• The hut-shaped form of temples probably evolved from vernacular houses. For
ages, deities had been worshipped in such pavilion-like, humble, single
structure in a peasant’s house which finally transformed into a monumental
brick shrine after being patronized by the Royals and the Elite.
• The progression from (mud + thatch) to (brick) later continued to (plaster + brick)
and finally to ugly (plaster + concrete).
• Neoclassical and Italianate urban and country houses influenced temple
architecture later in Colonial period.
• Temple continued to illustrate different tales of different groups in a society
(even of the Colonial masters).

• Islam (in Bengal) came to Bengal comparatively late (Within about one hundred years of
its advent, Islam penetrated into northwestern India, and Arabian traders came into contact with
the coastal regions of India, including Bengal. But it took about five hundred years for Muslim
political power to reach Bengal.).
• The first three hundred years ruled by the Turks of one or the other group- the
Khaljis, the Ilbaris and the Qaraunahs. Broadly speaking, the Muslim rulers of
Bengal belonged to three racial groups- the Turks, the Afghans and the Mughals.
• Islam entered Bengal both by land and water. Turks came by land, Arad traders
used waterways. The Turks came with the avowed intention of establishing political
power. The Arabs came to trade in the trading season, and left when the season was
over.
• Islam, which came in the wake of the Turkish conquest, changed the socio-religious
pattern of Bengal. Politically, it sowed the seeds of Muslim rule, but socially it
planted a Muslim society, opening the gate of Bengal to numerous immigrants
from the then Muslim world, which affected the existing society enormously.
Islam spread in Bengal in a lengthy process.
• Muslim settlement was established, Mosques, Madrasahs, Khankahs (to
accommodate the Sufi Saints)

• Although Shias started coming to Bengal after the Mughal conquest or even before,
they came in larger number from the beginning of the 17th century after jahangir’s
accession to the throne.
• The Shias brought some practices and ceremonies. The most important of them is
linked with the tragic death of Imam Husain (R) and his family at Karbala, the
Muharram festival.
• The Mashayikh or the Sufi-Saints were spiritual persons, sometimes otherworldly or
ascetic. The Sufis of Bengal were called Shaikh, because they actually devoted
themselves to the teaching of Islamic sciences alongside their mystic devotions. The
Sufis were also called Makhdums, ie those who are served.
• When Hindu-Buddhist rivalry was very much present in the society, Islam came as a
relieving force, in which many found an easy opening to salvation and success.
• The reasons for conversion may be either mundane, eg for gaining royal favour, job
opportunities and economic gains, or genuine love for the faith and desire to be
free from oppression from people belonging to higher castes. The last mentioned
cause seems to have played a greater part in the matter of conversion in Bengal.
• The advent of Islam in Bengal gave the Brahmanical ascendancy a rude shock. The
importance of the superior castes in both political and social life was greatly reduced.

The Rise of Laukik Culture (ললৌবকক সংস্কৃ বত)
Localized Philosophy
And Spirituality

Centuries of contact between the Hindus and the Muslims had profoundly
influenced both, so that the social and religious life of the Muslims profoundly
influenced Hinduism, and in the same manner some practices of the Hindus entered
into the life of the Muslims. As a result some popular elements are also found in the
religious practices of the Muslims. The most important popular element is found in
Pirism. The Persian word Pir is now very loosely used, denoting those spiritual
guides for which the Arabic words, Shaikh, Murxid were formerly used.
In Bengal there also developed Satya-Pir and Panch-Pir movements and a good
number of books were written on the Satya-Pir cult. While the Muslim writers
call him Satya-Pir, to the Hindus he was known as Satya-Narayana. In fact, there
is no difference between Satya Pir and Satya Narayana.
the Axraf and Atraf (or Ajlaf) difference among Muslims was not much different from
the caste distinction of the Hindus.

সহবিয়া, নাথয াগী, িাউল,
কতিাভািা, সাযহিধানী, মুবশিদী,
মাইিভান্ডারী…..
Local Spiritual Beliefs Include:

• Marginal lifestyle and culture played a vital role in the spread of Islam, which took a
character of its own here.
• The creator and the creation becomes one in Sufism
• The need for a “middleman” between God and people in this subcontinent. Pir,
Murshids
• Fanaa
• Mentor oriented spirituality
• Influence of local tantric practices. E.g. Tabiz
• Gradually disappearing boundary between Pir and God

• The popularity of Islam became a threat for Hinduism. Need for reform was felt.
• Attempt to bring the lower caste people into the greater Hinduism.
• Local deities absorbed into Islam. Mansa Devi.
• Chaitanyadev popularized Vaishnavism. Spread messages of love and equality.
Saw religion not as a strict lifestyle, rather a fandom and emotional phenomenon.
• No Mantras needed for his religion.
• Nam-Kirtan or Name Chanting.
• Love for all life.
• Liberated religion from elite Sanskrit and spread it in the people’s language.
• Chaitanyadev died at an young age. Some say he was assassinated.
• After his death authoritarians announced his faith invalid. Later it was modified in a
conservative way and gotapproval from the Brahmins.

The post-Chaitanya period saw a tradition of spirituality devoid of all
formalities.
Shahajzan from Buddhism + Islami Sufism +
Vaishnav faith
Perhaps the greatest expression of this was
found in the
Bauls (বাউল)

The origin of the word Baul is debated
It may be derived either from Sanskrit word
vatula, which means “enlightened”
from vāyu - "air" or "wind"
or from vyakula, which means "restless,
agitated"
All of these derivations are consistent with the modern sense of the word, which denotes the inspired
people with an ecstatic eagerness for a spiritual life, where a person can realize his union with the eternal
beloved –
মযনর মানুষ (Man of the Soul)

নাথ (Nath) সহবিয়া (Sahajia) িাউল Baul
Bauls have mixed elements of:
• Tantra
• Sufi Islam
• Vaishnavism
• Buddhism
Their songs and culture greatly influenced
by-:
• Hindu Vakti songs
• Sufi philosophy
সুফী Sufi)
Like Sahajiyas, they seek the essence of
the beyond-body in the body itself.
Dehatattya (লদহতত্ত্ব)
They don’t have any mantras, any shloks,
any suraas. They deny all rules of
religion and seek the supreme being
(মযনর মানুষ) in songs and dance.
They believe that religion is an
obstruction in their journey to seek this
supreme being

“লতামার পথ ঢাইকযাযে মবিযর মসবিযদ।
লতামার ডাক শুবন সাাঁই চলযত না পাই
রুযে দাাঁড়ায় গুরুযত মসবিযদ”
----মদন িাউল

“তন্ত্র-মন্ত্র কযর লদবে তার বভতযর তুবম নাই
শাস্ত্র-গ্রন্থ পবড় ত আরও দূযর সযর াই
লকান সাগযর লেলযতে লাই, ভািযতবে তাই অন্তযর
(মুবশিদ ধনযহ) লকমযন বচবনি লতামাযর ।।
িাউল আব্দুল কবরম িযল দয়া কর আমাযর
নতবশযর করযিাযড় িবল লতামার দরিাযর
ভযের অধীন হও বচরবদন, থাক ভযের অন্তযর
(মুবশিদ ধনযহ) লকমযন বচবনি লতামাযর ।।”
----শাহ আব্দুল কবরম

“The worshipper and the
shrine reside inside the
human body”
াহা আযে লদহ ভাযন্ড,
তাহাই আযে ব্রহ্মাযে

• Monsoon Zone
• Prolonged floods
• 70-100 inches of rain / year
(between June and September)
• Average humidity over 80%
• Angle of Sun is much higher
and therefore creates thermal
discomfort
• Overcast sky; causes glare
• Rapid growth of vegetation
Unique Aspect:
Climatic facts of Bengal:

• The monsoon affects the nature of the soil and probably the
temperament of man.
• The six seasons are positive factors in determining human conduct,
way of life, thoughts, beliefs, emotion and an innate love for
music.
• The agrarian society is largely dependent on the way climate
behaves: major festivals, ceremonies and rituals pertaining to various
seasons have produced a particular social pattern.
• The harshness of the sun and the embrace of humidity are largely
reduced because the land is blessed with large amount of green
present. The softening effect soothes visually, psychologically and
physically.
• Climate changes as the seasons change and brings sorrow and
happiness accordingly.
• The basic housing schemes are largely dependent on the way climate
behaves.

• Wind, rainfall and sunlight acts generously to determine the
characteristics of living environment and basic archetype of living units.
• The base plane (plinth), the vertical protectors/dividers (walls) and the
overhead plane (roof) are the three main elements of a typical Bengal house
that shows the perfect response towards the adverse climate.
• The wall must be perforated to welcome any amount of air that flows through
a built-form but should not allow light from the upper portion of the sky
(glare, heat, discomfort)
• Orientation plays a vital part to ensure perfect air flow and keep away
unwanted sun.
• Again, any building should be allowed to adequate amount of sun to reduce the
chance to allow humidity.
Effect on Built-form

Factors at Play
Socio
Economic
Cultural

• Huge influence of Austric Influence on Life and Culture of
Bengal
• Big influence of Indus valley(সিন্ধু) civilization as well-
• Agrarian Society
• Farming
• Rice Culture
• The Art of Cotton weaving
• A kind of early “Ponchayet” system
• Images of various deities adapted from
Austric Totems
• Copper cutlery
• Bengal was main source of copper
• Mother Goddesses
(virgin, carried by Lion, Feminine nature but could
also go to war, associated with mountains…)

General Nature of Bengalis
(Hiuen Tsang):
 Hardy and Brave
 Honest and Cordial
 Quick and Agile
 Fond of Learning
 Quarrelsome
 Superstitious
 Emotional
 Hospitality

অন্নপায়ী িঙ্গিাসী স্তনযপায়ী িীি...
ভদ্র লমারা শান্ত িড়, লপাষ মানা এ প্রান
লিাতাম-আাঁটা িামার বনযচ শাবন্তযত শয়ান।
লদো হযলই বমষ্ট অবত/মুযের ভাি বশষ্ট অবত,
অলস লদহ বিষ্টগবত – গৃযহর পাযন টান।
---রিীন্দ্রনাথ ঠাকু র

দাসযমুযে হাসযমুে, বিনীত লিাড় কর,
প্রভু র পযদ লসাহাগ-মযদ লদাদুল কযলির!
পাদুকাতযল পবড়য়া লুবট ঘৃণায় মাো অন্ন েুাঁবট
িযগ্র হযয় ভবরয়া মুবঠ ল যতযে বিযর ঘর।
ঘযরযত িযস গিি কযরা পূিিপুরুযষর,
আ িযতিদপিভযর পৃথ্বী থরথর!
---রিীন্দ্রনাথ ঠাকু র

• Family is the basic social unit
• Joint family structure – traditional agrarian society – transformation,
overpowered by strong colonial influence – individualismpromoted –
disturbance of family structure – spitted up combined family structure
• Individualism is hardly found in traditional rural settings – family structure is clearly
evident by looking at traditionalhouse form(clustered around a courtyard)
• Religion provides certain boundary on ethics and other social behavior
• Confused ideals (as we all know that every society follows some ideals which serve
both physical and psychological needs of its people) probably due to some religious
norms
• Fusion of religion, culture, tradition and rituals (Bengali Muslim’s marriage ceremony)
– are we confused?
Social

• Depends mainly on geographic and climatic construction
• Preference of cotton (availability, comfort & nature of work)
• Single piece of clothes (‘Lungi’, vest for male & ‘Saree’, blouse for female);
occasionally an upper garment
• Thin towel (‘Gamcha’) is also another piece that has multiple uses.
• Shorter ‘Dhuties’
• Cotton ‘Chadar (scarf)’ for winter
• Seldom had any head covering!
• Modern clothing has been blended into Bengal’s traditional clothing when
colonial rulers dominated
Clothing

 Also depends on geographic and climatic construction
 Fish, Rice, Dal, Vegetables, Milk, Pickles, Pitha,
Fruits, Sweetmeat, Paan, Tea, Smoking
 Meat (mainly introduced by Muslims)
 The Portuguese brought chili, various fruits, vegetable and
spices with them
Food

“মাযে ভাযত িাঙ্গালী”
‘লভযতা’ িাঙ্গালী

 Chess
 Pasha
 Guti-khela
 Baghbandi
 Bou Basonti
 Mogol-Pathan
 Dosh Pochish
 Korhi Khela
 Cards
 Churi
 Kanamachhi
 Ekka- Dokka
Games

Morality
 ‘Immorality & sensual excesses’was
part of social life! (high moral standards for Buddhists
though)
 Influence of Tantricdoctrine

Women in society:
 Soft and timid
 Sweet speaking and graceful
 Used ornaments
 Hardly any independent status

 Predominantly an agrariansociety
 Every house is a self-sustained production unit
(equipped with pond, cattle, livestock, orchard, vegetable trellis/garden
and essentially beside a piece of paddy land)
 Individual villages are also self-sufficient; each of them
has their own professionals and required amenities – barber, waiver,
blacksmith, market etc.
 Foreign trade traced back to 4th-5th centuries BC.
Economy

Economy
Overseas routes for foreign trade (from Tamralipti):
- Towards south east to Burma.
- To Malaya peninsula and the Far-East
- Towards southwest to Kalinga, Eojrata and Ceylon.
• Overseas trade with South India.
• Export spices to even Rome during the 1st century AD
Land-routes for foreign trade:
- Pundravardhana to Kamarupa. (Textile, sandal etc.)
- Pundravardhana to Pataliputra. (Frequently used westward route).
- Towards china through the Himalayas (raw silk, silk yarn and silk cloth)

প্রাবন্তক সংস্কৃ বত
Marginal Culture
Contributed much to the localization or contextualization of
foreign ideas and philosophies

Settlement
Different pattern of human livings

 “This region is largely a delta, a pure chemistry of land and water.
The land primarily formed by silt deposits is constantly shaped and
reshaped by rivers, which themselves are perpetually shifting and
changing. All these features combine and give the land an
amorphous nature and characterize the regions climate,
topography, ecology and hydrology.”
…………….Kazi Khaleed Ashraf (Pundranagar to Sher e Banglanagar)
 Primarily a country of villages; towns are nothing but developed
form of villages. Bengalis are not probably urban yet.
Cities are just developed villages.

Domestication of animals and farming led to permanent settlements
(the former tribes were nomads) in Neolithic Period.
The First Rural Settlements.
Neolithic Period = নববাপলীয় যুগ
Chalcolithic Period = তাম্রাশ্মযুগ
The rural settlements of Neolithic Period
The urban settlements of Chalcolithic Period
Eventually evolved into
Start of Settlements

Urban settlements:
•Literary evidences are found.
(Example: Varahamihira-6 C AD: Brihatsamrita, mentioned
about 6 Janapadas in the eastern region)
•Trade centers not political ones
•Nodes on routes to different destinations.
•Renowned for their richness and luxury

Ancient urban settlements:
1. Tamralipti (West Bengal near Tamluk)
•Sea port city 7-8th C AD, on routes of trade
•Trade, educational and cultural center
2. Karnasubarna (West Bengal, Murshidabad)
•Capital of Shasanka 7 th century AD, Famous for Raktamrittika Vihara
3. Pundravardhana (Bangladesh, Bogra)
•Oldest and chief city of North Bengal 3 rd - 6 th C BC
•Center of religion, education, culture and administration
•Over a trade route; two parts: walled and beyond, Perimeter: 6 miles
•Left of Korotoa River over 30 sq. miles, remains of a planned city: citywalls, gates,
palaces, pleasure gardens, temples, viharas, shops, residences-decorated with tanks etc.
4. Koti-Barsha/Banpura (Bangladesh, Dinajpur)
•Pala period, (1800 x 1500) sft, a great palace at the center.
•Fortified in three side and a bridge from east and at west is Punarvaba river
5. Somepur (Pundranagar, Bangladesh, Paharpur, Rajshahi)
•Pala period 9th-10th century AD, Buddhist centre
•Destroyed by Venga solders in 11th centyry AD.

Bengal Village
Rural settlements:

 Predominant pattern
 Nucleated not single firm type
 Compact groups on raised land frequently flooded
during monsoon
 Popular terminologies:
 Vastu: habitat
 Kshetra: land
 Go-chala: natural meadow
Also:
 Garta-nala: canals
 Ushara: barrenlands
 Go-marga: cattle tracks
 Patha: path

A clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet
but smaller than a town, with a population ranging from a few
hundred to a few thousand (sometimes tens of thousands). Villages
are normally permanent, with fixed dwellings; however transient
villages can occur. Further, the dwellings of a village are fairly close
to one another, not scattered broadly over the landscape, as a
dispersed settlement.
Villages has “traditionally been tied to the cycles of
agricultural life”
Bengal Villages are essentially
Self-Sufficient
“The village communities are little republics, having nearly
everything that they want within themselves and almost
independent of any foreign relations. They seem to last where
nothing else lasts”*
*Ibid; M N Srinivas and A M Shah, ‘The Myth of Self-Sufficiency of the India Village in The Economic Weekly, 1960, September 10, p. 1375

“The hut type and the deltaic geography have also spawned
characteristic settlement patterns. Along rivers and canals, homesteads
clustered on earthen mounds amongst rice fields and groves have
created a kind of timeless landscape. Through historical changes,
social upheavals or religious revolutions, the milieu of the village has
remained more or less unchanged. It is still formed by the same kind
of relation with nature and the river, the same locational quality of the
homesteads, paddy fields and groves”
The Timeless Landscape
*Kazi Khaleed Ashraf Pundranagar to Sher e Banglanagar

“Life in Bengal does not seem to have changed very much in the last thousand years or
so….some aspects of life pattern which do not seem to have changed very much; the
dependence on agriculture and the time old use of plough; the life pattern of village folk
and their joys and sorrows; even the landscape pattern and modes of communication in
rural Bengal- these are a few of the areas where the ‘eternal’ aspect of life in Bengal may be
seen apparently.”
The seasonal pattern and the natural setting, such as ‘the cuckoo singing the blossoming
of the mango, the buzzing of the bees and lily buds in tanks and ponds in
springtime, or the monsoon rains, the village children smeared with mud and with
sticks in their hands, running after the rising fish in the flooded paddy fields which
are full of croaking frogs’ or the ‘happy village young man in the nights of monsoon
lies with his wife in his thatched pavilion over the roof of which grows pumpkin
vines and he listens in her embrace to the constant downpour of rains’ or ‘the
peasant houses are happy in the harvest of the winter rice and sweet with perfume
from jars of new stored grain’ –
all have an ‘eternity’ in them”
*Ibid; M N Srinivas and A M Shah, ‘The Myth of Self-Sufficiency of the India Village in The Economic Weekly, 1960, September 10
Eternity and Timelessness

• Composed of “Huts” arranged around a central courtyard or uthaan (উঠান)
• The courtyard exists as an extension of the indoor living areas of the huts
which are characteristically inadequate. It also provides seclusion from the
outside and sense of security
• Fairly well adapted to the local culture, environment and resources.
• Small, insanitary, many of basic amenities of daily life are missing.
• Two distinct separate parts-
Inner house (The female domain) – spaces with functional values
Outer house (The male domain) – spaces with symbolic values
• Religious beliefs influence the layout…..direction of the Qibla…..Hindu hut
emphasizes ritual purity
Homestead
The act of homesteading starts by creating a land or mound for the house which is
gradually stabilized and enriched with vegetation. On this stabilized mound the first
house structure or the hut is built. The homestead is then gradually enlarged by
adding new structures, creating ponds, tanks, canals and drains. These are the
ecological bases of the house and they also play significant roles in ensuring privacy
by creating barriers from the next homesteads and thereby generating the loose
distributed settlement pattern
Evolution of the Traditional House Form

• The most elemental pavilion is the rustic
Bengali Hut
• Three prominent parts- the plinth, the walls,
the roof
• The uniquely bent roof known as the Bangla
Roof thwarts the intense sun and the
torrential rain
• Walls are permeable to the movement of air
• Verandahs, terraces and semi enclosures create
an ambiguity between inside and outside
• The hut is the basic unit of the bengal
peasant, the hosehold- the basic unit of
production
The Bengal Hut

The Deltaic Pavilion
“The most pervasive architectural presence in the delta is the
‘pavilion’ structure. Its singular persistence as the idea of dwelling
(vastu) further clarifies the culture of the Bengal delta”*
*Kazi Khaleed Ashraf Pundranagar to Sher e Banglanagar
The pavilion is a manifestation of man’s
relationship with nature. The pavilion
situation- to be with the atmosphere –
translates into a continuum of the
external/natural worls with the architectural
space, into establishing a visual, spatial and
sensorial interpretation of nature and
architecture. And for this reason, Bengal
dwelling is always idealized with its setting.
The territory of the house is much
wider than the space under the
roof.

“পুযি হাাঁস পবিযম িাাঁশ
উত্তযর লিযড় দবিযণ লেযড়”
An understanding of deltaic
urbanism lies not in the dense
labyrinthine fabric of cities like Jaipur
and Lahore, but in city-forms east of
the Bengal delta, in the rice culture
matrix, where the distinction
between urban and rural
morphology has not been so
oppositional, and where buildings
took their place in the natural
milieu with minimal turmoil
This has been the perennial image of the Bengali landscape:
modest, detached structures among foliage and ponds.
Land water, garden, and building become a part of an
inseparable architectural whole.
The integral relationship between the pavilion and the
environment is also a key to complex organization, from
simple clustering to settlement patterns, and finally to a sort
of deltaic city. This deltaic morphology implies the
disposition of isolated buildings in a fabric of paddy fields,
gardens, orchards, lakes and ponds.
The Deltaic Pavilion

Present & Future
Many of the conditions dictating a courtyard form for the traditional rural
house in Bangladesh are in the process of change.
The rural women folks, for example, are gradually coming out of their
seclusion through literacy, family planning and women's cooperatives.
Agriculture is being organized on a cooperative basis eliminating the need
of a courtyard for every house for paddy thrashing and grain drying.
Moreover, paddy thrashing is now done using locally made small
mechanical devices which do not require large spaces. The traditional
courtyard layout may eventually be transformed in favor of a more
appropriate layout, maybe a linear one which will not only conform better to
the socio-climatic requirements but which will also ensure convenient and
efficient layout of utility services and utilization of land.
The geometry of the house structure may remain basically unchanged
although the size may be increased and the interior maybe sub divided into
more than one space and utilities added
Muktadir, Mohammed A.; Hassan, Dewan M. :Traditional House Form in Rural Bangladesh: A Case Study for Regionalism in Architecture

River Delta
A river delta is a landform that forms from deposition of sediment carried by a river as the flow leaves
its mouth and enters slower-moving or standing water. This occurs where a river enters an ocean, sea,
estuary, lake, reservoir, or (more rarely) another river that cannot transport away the supplied sediment.
The size and shape of a delta is controlled by the balance between watershed processes that supply
sediment and receiving basin processes that redistribute, sequester, and export that sediment. The size,
geometry, and location of the receiving basin also plays an important role in delta evolution. River
deltas are important in human civilization, as they are major agricultural production centers and
population centers. They can provide coastline defense and can impact drinking water supply.They are
also ecologically important, with different species assemblages depending on their landscape position.
Matsya Nyaya
"Matsya Nyaya Pranali", whose literal translation is the "law of the fishes". In the West, it is known as
"law of the jungle" or that the strong will eat the weaker to survive. With respect to Hinduism, it refers
to the fact that "the big fish eats the little fish", which is the universal "law of nature".
Proposes that in periods of chaos, when there is no ruler, the strong devour the weak, just as in periods
of drought big fish eat little fish. Thus, the need for a ruler is viewed as absolute.

Culture
The arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded collectively.
The customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group; also : the
characteristic features of everyday existence (such as diversions or a way of life) shared by people in a
place or time .
Tradition
The transmission of customs or beliefs from generation to generation, or the fact of being passed on in
this way. A doctrine believed to have divine authority though not in the scriptures, in particular.
A tradition is a belief or behavior passed down within a group or society with symbolic meaning or
special significance with origins in the past. Common examples include holidays or impractical but
socially meaningful clothes (like lawyers' wigs or military officers' spurs), but the idea has also been
applied to social norms such as greetings. Traditions can persist and evolve for thousands of years—the
word "tradition" itself derives from the Latin tradere literally meaning to transmit, to hand over, to give
for safekeeping. While it is commonly assumed that traditions have ancient history, many traditions have
been invented on purpose, whether that be political or cultural, over short periods of time. Various
academic disciplines also use the word in a variety of ways.

The Fertile Crescent
The Fertile Crescent (also known as the cradle of
civilization) is a crescent-shaped region containing the
comparatively moist and fertile land of otherwise arid
and semi-arid Western Asia, the Nile Valley and Nile
Delta. Having originated in the study of ancient
history, the concept soon developed and today retains
meanings in international geopolitics and diplomatic
relations.
The Fertile Crescent includes Mesopotamia, the land in
and around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers; and the
Levant, the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.
The modern-day countries with significant territory
within the Fertile Crescent are Iraq, Syria, Lebanon,
Cyprus, Jordan, Israel, Egypt, as well as the
southeastern fringe of Turkey and the western fringes
of Iran.
The region saw the development of some of the
earliest human civilizations, which flourished thanks to
the water supplies and agricultural resources available
in the Fertile Crescent. Technological advances made
in the region include the development of writing, glass,
the wheel, agriculture, and the use of irrigation.

Polytheism
Polytheism (from Greek πολυθεϊσμός, polytheismos) is the worship of or belief in multiple deities,
which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religions and
rituals. In most religions which accept polytheism, the different gods and goddesses are representations
of forces of nature or ancestral principles, and can be viewed either as autonomous or as aspects or
emanations of a creator God or transcendental absolute principle (monistic theologies), which
manifests immanently in nature (panentheistic and pantheistic theologies).
Monotheism
The doctrine or belief that there is only one God. Monotheism has been defined as the belief in the
existence of only one god that created the world, is all-powerful and intervenes in the world.. A broader
definition of monotheism is the belief in one god. A distinction may be made between exclusive
monotheism, and both inclusive monotheism and pluriform (panentheistic) monotheism which, while
recognising various distinct gods, postulate some underlying unity.
Monotheism is distinguished from henotheism, a religious system in which the believer worships one
god without denying that others may worship different gods with equal validity, and monolatrism, the
recognition of the existence of many gods but with the consistent worship of only one deity.

Nirvana
Nirvāṇa (/nɪərˈvɑːnə, -ˈvænə, nər-/; Sanskrit: निर्वाण nirvāṇa [nirʋaːɳə]; Pali: निब्बवि nibbāna ; Prakrit:
णणव्र्वण ṇivvāṇa ) literally means "blown out", as in an oil lamp.[2] The term "nirvana" is most
commonly associated with Buddhism, and represents its ultimate state of soteriological release and
liberation from rebirths in saṃsāra.
In Indian religions, nirvana is synonymous with moksha and mukti. All Indian religions assert it to be a
state of perfect quietude, freedom, highest happiness along with it being the liberation from samsara,
the repeating cycle of birth, life and death.
However, Buddhist and non-Buddhist traditions describe these terms for liberation differently. In the
Buddhist context, nirvana refers to realization of non-self and emptiness, marking the end of rebirth by
stilling the fires that keep the process of rebirth going. In Hindu philosophy, it is the union of or the
realization of the identity of Atman with Brahman, depending on the Hindu tradition. In Jainism, it is
also the soteriological goal, it represents the release of a soul from karmic bondage and samsara.
Vernacular Architecture
Latin word ‘vernaculus’ means native. In native context, architecture is vernacular when it exhibits distinct
characteristics in construction techniques, material use, performance of space, social system within a
particular community to sustain. Vernacular is also referred to as “the mode of expression of a group
or class”

• Wikipidia (www.en.wikipedia.com)
• Majumder, R.C.: History of Bengal, Vol – I
• Roy, Nihar Ranjan: বাঙ্গালীর ইতিহাসঃ আতিপবব
• Zakaria, A.K.M.: বাাংলাদিদের প্রত্ন-সম্পি
• Michell, George: Brick Temples of Bengal
• Ahmed, Nazimuddin: Discover the Monuments of Bangladesh
• Murshid, Golam: হাজার বছদরর বাঙাতল সাংস্কৃতি
• Dr. Sur, Atul: বাঙলা ও বাঙালীর তববিব ন
• Hasan, K. Mahmudul: বাঙালীর ইতিকথা
• Hussain, Shahanara: History of Ancient Bengal
• Mannan, A. Vaskor; Barua, Sudipta: Anecdote of Bengal Vernacular Spaces
• Hasan, Shahidul: Bengal Villages As Seen by the Foreigners (14th-17th Century AD)
• Muktadir, Mohammed A.; Hassan, Dewan M. :Traditional House Form in Rural Bangladesh: A Case Study for
Regionalism in Architecture
• Ashraf, Kazi Khaleed : Pundranagar to Sher e Banglanagar
References

• History of the Entire World I guess by Bill Wurtz
• History of India: Every Year by Ollie Bye
• Excerpts from the movie Samsara
• Doyal Kandari | Lalon Geeti | Parvathy Baul | by Musiana
• Kalikaprasad & Srikanto Acharya I The Bhatiyali Song I Musiana Conversation by Musiana
• Musiana Conversation | Who is the Baul’s Moner Manush? | Kalikaprasad and Srikanto Acharya by Musiana
• Musiana Talk | Kalikaprasad Bhattacharya remembers “Baul Shah Abdul Karim” by Musiana
• Kalikaprasad and Srikanto Acharya I Folk and the City I Musiana Conversation by Musiana
• Viking Oceans: Turkey's Whirling Dervishes by Viking Ocean Cruises
Additional Videos Used Throughout the Course

Architecture of Bengal

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