Jobs in science and maths are expected to grow at an unprecedented rate of 28% between 2014 and 2024, compared to 6.5% growth in all other professions. This rise will be accompanied by the progressive automation of routine and low-skilled jobs. This paper investigates the association between teaching practices and science performance and science-related attitudes amd also examines the influence of school and students’ context on the effectiveness of different teaching practices.
The science of teaching science - an exploration of science teaching practices in PISA 2015
1. The science of teaching science:
An exploration of science teaching practices in PISA 2015
Andreas Schleicher
2. Context
• Jobs in science and maths are expected to grow at an
unprecedented rate of 28% between 2014 and 2024,
compared to 6.5% growth in all other professions. This
rise will be accompanied by the progressive automation
of routine and low-skilled jobs
• This paper:
Investigates the association between teaching practices
and science performance and science-related attitudes.
Examines the influence of school and students’ context
on the effectiveness of different teaching practices.
4. Outcomes of interest
• Students’ performance in science
• Students’ attitudes and dispositions towards
science
Enjoyment of science
Interest in science
Epistemic beliefs
Science self-efficacy
Expectations of science-related careers at age 30
5. Enquiry-based science teaching
Through scientific enquiry, students should develop a critical way of engaging with science. They
should be able to acquire a deep understanding about a topic, develop a coherent scientific method,
and ultimately provide a robust answer to the question under investigation
6. How prevalent is enquiry-based science teaching?
-0.80
-0.60
-0.40
-0.20
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
Kazakhstan
DominicanRepublic
Peru
Jordan
Lebanon
Algeria
Tunisia
Georgia
Moldova
Mexico
Russia
UnitedArabEmirates
Qatar
Albania
Denmark
Kosovo
UnitedStates
Portugal
Turkey
Sweden
Canada
Indonesia
Colombia
VietNam
TrinidadandTobago
Slovenia
Romania
Bulgaria
FYROM
Australia
Lithuania
NewZealand
France
Switzerland
Thailand
Latvia
Malta
Luxembourg
Chile
HongKong(China)
Germany
Israel
Brazil
Uruguay
Ireland
Singapore
OECDaverage
UnitedKingdom
Norway
CzechRepublic
Estonia
Greece
Poland
CABA(Argentina)
CostaRica
Montenegro
Iceland
Macao(China)
Croatia
Italy
Belgium
Hungary
SlovakRepublic
Spain
Netherlands
B-S-J-G(China)
Austria
Finland
ChineseTaipei
Korea
Japan
Meanindex
Index of enquiry-based science teaching
7. Which enquiry activities are more common?
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Students are
given
opportunities
to explain
their ideas
The teacher
explains how
<school
science> ideas
can be applied
The teacher
clearly
explains the
relevance of
<broad
science>
concepts to
our lives
Students are
asked to draw
conclusions
from an
experiment
they have
conducted
Students are
required to
argue about
science
questions
There is a
class debate
about
investigations
Students are
asked to do an
investigation
to test ideas
Students
spend time in
the laboratory
doing practical
experiments
Students are
allowed to
design their
own
experiments
%
Percentage of students who reported that the following activities occur “In most lessons” or “In all
lessons”:
OECD average
8. Enquiry-based teaching is negatively associated with
students’ performance
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
Moldova
Singapore
VietNam
Thailand
Algeria
B-S-J-G(China)
HongKong(China)
Luxembourg
Israel
Denmark
Belgium
Germany
Austria
CABA(Argentina)
Macao(China)
Finland
Ireland
Romania
France
ChineseTaipei
Hungary
Turkey
Switzerland
TrinidadandTobago
Spain
Colombia
Australia
Iceland
Italy
Netherlands
UnitedKingdom
Portugal
CostaRica
Croatia
Mexico
UnitedArabEmirates
Peru
DominicanRepublic
OECDaverage
FYROM
Lithuania
Indonesia
Slovenia
Lebanon
Tunisia
Sweden
Qatar
Japan
UnitedStates
Brazil
Montenegro
Jordan
Uruguay
Malta
CzechRepublic
Chile
Korea
SlovakRepublic
Canada
Kosovo
Latvia
Bulgaria
Georgia
Poland
Norway
Russia
Greece
NewZealand
Estonia
Score-pointdifference
Change in science performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of enquiry-based
science teaching
After accounting for student characteristics and observed and unobserved school features
Before accounting for student characteristics and observed and unobserved school features
9. The association between enquiry-based science teaching
and performance depends on school context
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
Moldova*
CABA(Argentina)
Luxembourg*
Thailand*
Algeria
Belgium*
Finland*
Romania*
Hungary*
Germany
Macao(China)*
TrinidadandTobago*
Australia*
ChineseTaipei*
B-S-J-G(China)*
HongKong(China)
FYROM*
Lithuania*
Kosovo*
UnitedArabEmirates*
Spain
Jordan*
Portugal*
VietNam
Israel
Singapore
France
Netherlands*
Ireland
DominicanRepublic*
Turkey
Indonesia*
Lebanon*
Austria
Mexico*
Croatia*
Sweden*
SlovakRepublic*
Malta*
Tunisia*
Montenegro*
Italy*
Denmark
Peru*
Slovenia
Bulgaria*
Switzerland
Colombia
OECDaverage*
Qatar*
Brazil*
CostaRica
Uruguay*
Iceland
Georgia*
Japan
Chile
Korea
Latvia
UnitedStates
Estonia*
CzechRepublic
Canada
Poland
UnitedKingdom
Greece
Norway
Russia
NewZealand
Score-pointdifference
Change in science performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of enquiry-based
science teaching
Students in the top quarter of the index of disciplinary climate Students in the bottom quarter of the index of disciplinary climate
The interaction between enquiry-
based science teaching and school
climate is significant
10. Some explanations
• When it comes to unguided discovery, criticism has focused on the lack of
structure in the construction of knowledge. Novice learners may not have the
extensive knowledge or training of professional scientists.
– When scientists formulate a hypothesis they draw on a body of knowledge built
over a long period of time. In contrast, students lack this knowledge, and can only
rely on a patchy understanding of scientific principals and on a short-term
memory that could become overloaded with new information
• Enquiry-based instruction needs a different set of skills and attitudes than a
teacher-driven lecture.
– A lecture is more akin to a scripted performance; enquiry-based instruction is
more about improvisation and adaptation
• Enquiry-based learning requires time, training and more resources (e.g.
laboratory equipment and personnel). The classroom environment should be
favourable (e.g. better disciplinary climate). Activities need to be adequately
designed to cover the appropriate content.
11. Enquiry-based science teaching and the environment
• Success of Enquiry-based science teaching hinges on:
School climate: Discipline in science classes and absence of teacher and students-related behaviour
hindering instruction.
Availability of resources to conduct enquiry-based activities (e.g. laboratory materials, computer
simulation software).
Teacher pedagogical training in relation to enquiry-based activities.
Positive predisposition towards enquiry-based activities among teachers, school-principals and
educational authorities.
Availability of pedagogical guidelines for teachers to follow when setting up enquiry-based activities.
Provision of teacher guidance (to students) when initiating enquiry-based activities.
Enquiry-based science teaching’s success depends on surrounding environment
12. Students exposed to enquiry-based activities enjoy science more
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
NewZealand
UnitedKingdom
Australia
Ireland
Sweden
Norway
Denmark
Israel
Singapore
Italy
Austria
CABA(Argentina)
Belgium
HongKong(China)
Finland
Chile
CostaRica
Canada
Germany
OECDaverage
Malta
Spain
Romania
Poland
Japan
Iceland
B-S-J-G(China)
Croatia
Korea
Luxembourg
Hungary
Macao(China)
Slovenia
CzechRepublic
Portugal
France
Latvia
Moldova
UnitedStates
Uruguay
Switzerland
TrinidadandTobago
Netherlands
UnitedArabEmirates
Russia
Lebanon
ChineseTaipei
Georgia
Greece
Brazil
Colombia
Indonesia
Tunisia
Mexico
Algeria
Qatar
Lithuania
Montenegro
Thailand
Peru
Estonia
Kosovo
Turkey
Jordan
SlovakRepublic
Bulgaria
DominicanRepublic
VietNam
FYROM
Changeintheindexofenjoymentofscience
Change in the index of enjoyment of science associated with a one-unit change in the index of
enquiry-based science teaching
After accounting for student characteristics and observed and unobserved school features
Before accounting for student characteristics and observed and unobserved school features
13. Students exposed to enquiry-based activities show higher levels of self-efficacy
when dealing with science-related tasks
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
Kosovo
Denmark
TrinidadandTobago
DominicanRepublic
Jordan
UnitedKingdom
Malta
Lebanon
Moldova
FYROM
Sweden
Georgia
Canada
Norway
CABA(Argentina)
Russia
Iceland
Latvia
Luxembourg
Lithuania
Singapore
Australia
Colombia
Uruguay
Indonesia
Qatar
Romania
Ireland
NewZealand
UnitedStates
Portugal
Belgium
Thailand
CostaRica
Finland
Mexico
Japan
OECDaverage
Macao(China)
Austria
Netherlands
France
Germany
UnitedArabEmirates
HongKong(China)
Greece
B-S-J-G(China)
Chile
Peru
Spain
Slovenia
Turkey
SlovakRepublic
Tunisia
Croatia
Italy
Israel
Switzerland
Montenegro
Brazil
VietNam
Hungary
Algeria
Bulgaria
Korea
Estonia
Poland
ChineseTaipei
CzechRepublic
Changeintheindexofself-efficacyinscience
Change in the index of self-efficacy in science associated with a one-unit increase in the index of
enquiry-based science teaching
After accounting for student characteristics and observed and unobserved school features
Before accounting for student characteristics and observed and unobserved school features
14. Exposure to enquiry-based science activities relates to
students’ expectations of a career in science
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.15
1.20
1.25
1.30
Italy
Israel
Ireland
Malta
Portugal
Hungary
Belgium
Slovenia
Luxembourg
FYROM
Lebanon
Australia
Uruguay
UnitedKingdom
Netherlands
HongKong(China)
Russia
Singapore
Spain
Austria
Kosovo
ChineseTaipei
Greece
SlovakRepublic
OECDaverage
Canada
Croatia
CzechRepublic
Algeria
Norway
NewZealand
Germany
Jordan
Sweden
Bulgaria
Chile
UnitedStates
VietNam
Lithuania
Denmark
Romania
Mexico
Turkey
France
Georgia
Montenegro
Qatar
Macao(China)
Japan
Finland
Brazil
TrinidadandTobago
Tunisia
Switzerland
B-S-J-G(China)
Moldova
UnitedArabEmirates
DominicanRepublic
CABA(Argentina)
Peru
Colombia
Indonesia
Korea
Estonia
CostaRica
Poland
Thailand
Iceland
Latvia
Oddsratios
Likelihood of students expecting to work in a science-related career at age 30 associated with a one-
unit increase in the index of enquiry-based science teaching
After accounting for student and school characteristics Before accounting for student and school characteristics
15. Teacher-directed science instruction
Teacher-directed practices are defined as approaches in which the teacher is largely in control of the
content and course of the lesson. They involve expository instruction – in which information is
delivered by the teacher in the form that students are expected to learn it – in addition to class
discussions and demonstration of ideas moderated by the teacher
16. In which country is teacher-directed science instruction
more common?
-0.60
-0.40
-0.20
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
Kazakhstan
Thailand
Canada
Jordan
Portugal
UnitedStates
Tunisia
Russia
UnitedArabEmirates
NewZealand
Australia
Singapore
Lebanon
Poland
Finland
Greece
Iceland
Qatar
Algeria
ChineseTaipei
Switzerland
DominicanRepublic
Malta
HongKong(China)
UnitedKingdom
Mexico
Israel
TrinidadandTobago
Moldova
Spain
Lithuania
B-S-J-G(China)
Hungary
Croatia
OECDaverage
Norway
Austria
Ireland
Peru
Colombia
Albania
Macao(China)
Georgia
Latvia
Turkey
Chile
VietNam
Sweden
CABA(Argentina)
Estonia
FYROM
Luxembourg
France
Bulgaria
Brazil
Denmark
Italy
Indonesia
Japan
CostaRica
Belgium
Germany
Montenegro
Netherlands
Uruguay
Kosovo
Romania
CzechRepublic
SlovakRepublic
Korea
Meanindex
Index of teacher-directed science instruction
17. How do enquiry-based teaching and teacher directed
instruction combine?
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE][CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE][CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
[CELLRANGE]
R² = 0.18
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4
Indexofenquiry-basedscienceteaching
Index of teacher-directed science instruction
Science performance higher than OECD average Science performance around OECD average Science performance below OECD average
Both enquiry-based teaching
and teacher-directed
instruction are commonly
used in science lessons
Both enquiry-based teaching and
teacher-directed instruction are
less common in science lessons
18. Teacher-directed instruction is associated with student
science achievement
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
Moldova
Finland
Israel
Georgia
Australia
Poland
Italy
Lebanon
Kosovo
Jordan
UnitedKingdom
Malta
Canada
Greece
UnitedArabEmirates
Romania
Qatar
VietNam
CABA(Argentina)
HongKong(China)
Singapore
Spain
UnitedStates
Iceland
Luxembourg
Colombia
NewZealand
Uruguay
FYROM
Netherlands
Russia
OECDaverage
Macao(China)
Latvia
Ireland
ChineseTaipei
France
Germany
Portugal
B-S-J-G(China)
DominicanRepublic
Mexico
Croatia
Switzerland
Sweden
Norway
Belgium
Chile
Austria
Thailand
Brazil
CzechRepublic
Bulgaria
Denmark
Japan
Algeria
Hungary
TrinidadandTobago
Turkey
Montenegro
Lithuania
Estonia
CostaRica
SlovakRepublic
Tunisia
Peru
Korea
Indonesia
Score-pointdifference
Change in science performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of teacher-directed
science instruction
After accounting for student characteristics and observed and unobserved school features
Before accounting for student characteristics and observed and unobserved school features
19. Teacher-directed science instruction relates to students
enjoyment of science
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
Netherlands
Australia
Israel
NewZealand
UnitedKingdom
HongKong(China)
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Spain
Finland
Belgium
Hungary
UnitedArabEmirates
DominicanRepublic
Poland
Qatar
Canada
Germany
Norway
Denmark
OECDaverage
Japan
Estonia
Singapore
Turkey
Austria
Peru
Portugal
Colombia
UnitedStates
Sweden
Croatia
Switzerland
Iceland
Korea
Bulgaria
Tunisia
France
Montenegro
Latvia
Macao(China)
Russia
B-S-J-G(China)
Uruguay
Chile
CostaRica
Brazil
Mexico
Lithuania
Thailand
Greece
ChineseTaipei
CzechRepublic
SlovakRepublic
Changeintheindexofenjoymentofscience
Change in the index of enjoyment of science associated with a one-unit increase in the index of
teacher-directed science instruction
After accounting for student characteristics and observed and unobserved school features
Before accounting for student characteristics and observed and unobserved school features
20. Teacher-directed science instruction relates to students
expectations of a career in science
0.85
0.95
1.05
1.15
1.25
1.35
1.45
Hungary
Italy
Israel
Portugal
Spain
Germany
Australia
Poland
Austria
Qatar
NewZealand
Belgium
Switzerland
Canada
Romania
Japan
Estonia
Malta
UnitedKingdom
Lebanon
DominicanRepublic
B-S-J-G(China)
OECDaverage
TrinidadandTobago
Singapore
Denmark
FYROM
Korea
HongKong(China)
Luxembourg
Peru
Finland
VietNam
Macao(China)
Netherlands
Ireland
Iceland
France
CABA(Argentina)
Turkey
SlovakRepublic
Algeria
UnitedArabEmirates
Bulgaria
Croatia
Jordan
Georgia
Lithuania
Greece
Norway
Latvia
Sweden
Kosovo
Brazil
ChineseTaipei
Uruguay
Moldova
Chile
UnitedStates
Tunisia
Russia
Mexico
Montenegro
Colombia
CostaRica
CzechRepublic
Thailand
Indonesia
Oddsratios
Likelihood of students expecting to work in a science-related career at age 30 associated with a one-
unit increase in the index of enquiry-based science teaching
After accounting for student and school characteristics Before accounting for student and school characteristics
21. Is enquiry-based teaching more effective when combined
with direct teacher instruction?
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
Moldova
Israel
Finland
CABA(Argentina)
Romania
VietNam
Singapore
HongKong(China)
Luxembourg
Belgium
Thailand
Italy
Kosovo
Macao(China)
B-S-J-G(China)
Austria
UnitedArabEmirates
Algeria
Australia
Iceland
Georgia
Lebanon
Switzerland
France
Croatia
Spain
Colombia
Uruguay
Germany
Hungary
ChineseTaipei
Jordan
CzechRepublic
Qatar
Malta
TrinidadandTobago
Ireland
UnitedKingdom
Turkey
OECDaverage
Montenegro
FYROM
Mexico
DominicanRepublic
Denmark
Poland
Netherlands
UnitedStates
Latvia
Portugal
Canada
CostaRica
Sweden
SlovakRepublic
Lithuania
Brazil
Peru
Chile
Japan
Greece
Tunisia
Bulgaria
Russia
Norway
NewZealand
Indonesia
Estonia
Korea
Score-pointdifference
Change in science performance associated with a one-unit increase in:
Both teaching practices together Index of enquiry-based science teaching Index of teacher-directed science instruction
23. How common is adaptive science instruction?
-0.60
-0.40
-0.20
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
Portugal
Singapore
Mexico
Denmark
Canada
NewZealand
UnitedStates
Russia
Bulgaria
CostaRica
UnitedArabEmirates
Chile
Australia
Latvia
UnitedKingdom
Thailand
Spain
Tunisia
Qatar
Sweden
Turkey
Brazil
Norway
HongKong(China)
DominicanRepublic
Iceland
B-S-J-G(China)
Greece
Colombia
Peru
ChineseTaipei
OECDaverage
Uruguay
Finland
Ireland
Montenegro
Korea
Israel
Macao(China)
Italy
Netherlands
Poland
Switzerland
Lithuania
Hungary
Croatia
CzechRepublic
Estonia
Germany
Japan
SlovakRepublic
Austria
France
Luxembourg
Belgium
Meanindex
Index of adaptive teaching in science lessons
24. Adapting science lessons to students’ needs relates to their
performance?
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
Norway
Denmark
Finland
UnitedKingdom
Sweden
Australia
Israel
Singapore
Iceland
Netherlands
UnitedArabEmirates
Latvia
Canada
Portugal
HongKong(China)
Estonia
NewZealand
Germany
B-S-J-G(China)
CzechRepublic
OECDaverage
Qatar
Bulgaria
Russia
Ireland
Lithuania
Poland
Chile
Thailand
Switzerland
Brazil
Turkey
Italy
Colombia
Greece
Uruguay
DominicanRepublic
Macao(China)
Korea
Montenegro
Spain
SlovakRepublic
UnitedStates
Croatia
Hungary
France
Belgium
Mexico
Japan
Luxembourg
CostaRica
Austria
Tunisia
ChineseTaipei
Peru
Score-pointdifference
Change in science performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of adaptive teaching
in science lessons
After accounting for student characteristics and observed and unobserved school features
Before accounting for student characteristics and observed and unobserved school features
25. Adapting science lessons relates to students enjoyment of science?
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
Australia
Israel
NewZealand
Turkey
Qatar
Sweden
Canada
UnitedArabEmirates
Bulgaria
DominicanRepublic
UnitedKingdom
Hungary
Ireland
Luxembourg
Korea
HongKong(China)
Tunisia
Estonia
Norway
Iceland
Finland
CostaRica
Switzerland
OECDaverage
Austria
Brazil
Montenegro
Italy
UnitedStates
Japan
Singapore
Peru
Portugal
France
Netherlands
Belgium
Lithuania
Germany
Chile
Uruguay
Denmark
Poland
Latvia
Croatia
B-S-J-G(China)
Russia
Colombia
Greece
Spain
Thailand
Mexico
CzechRepublic
ChineseTaipei
SlovakRepublic
Macao(China)
Changeintheindexofenjoymentofscience
Change in the index of enjoyment of science associated with a one-unit increase in the index of
adaptive teaching in science lessons
After accounting for student characteristics and observed and unobserved school features
Before accounting for student characteristics and observed and unobserved school features
26. Adapting science lessons relates to higher expectations of a
career in science
0.95
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.15
1.20
1.25
1.30
1.35
1.40
Israel
Denmark
Canada
UnitedKingdom
Italy
Belgium
Hungary
Portugal
Peru
Estonia
Singapore
B-S-J-G(China)
CzechRepublic
Spain
Luxembourg
NewZealand
Germany
Latvia
OECDaverage
Finland
Switzerland
Ireland
Bulgaria
Australia
Sweden
Qatar
Mexico
Macao(China)
HongKong(China)
Tunisia
UnitedArabEmirates
Lithuania
Korea
Netherlands
ChineseTaipei
Japan
Austria
SlovakRepublic
France
Iceland
Greece
Russia
Norway
Montenegro
DominicanRepublic
Chile
Croatia
Brazil
UnitedStates
Poland
Turkey
Uruguay
Thailand
Colombia
CostaRica
Oddsratios
Likelihood of students expecting to work in a science-related career at age 30 associated with a one-
unit increase in the index of adaptive teaching in science lessons
After accounting for student and school characteristics Before accounting for student and school characteristics
28. In which countries do teachers provide more feedback?
-0.60
-0.40
-0.20
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
Kazakhstan
Albania
DominicanRepublic
Georgia
Lebanon
FYROM
Tunisia
Moldova
VietNam
UnitedArabEmirates
Jordan
Qatar
Russia
Bulgaria
Mexico
Peru
Colombia
UnitedKingdom
Kosovo
TrinidadandTobago
Turkey
Indonesia
Montenegro
UnitedStates
Singapore
Algeria
NewZealand
Thailand
Latvia
B-S-J-G(China)
ChineseTaipei
Romania
Poland
Canada
Malta
Lithuania
Brazil
Chile
HongKong(China)
Spain
Portugal
CostaRica
Italy
Greece
Australia
Uruguay
Croatia
Hungary
Ireland
OECDaverage
Norway
Sweden
SlovakRepublic
Israel
Netherlands
Estonia
CzechRepublic
Macao(China)
France
CABA(Argentina)
Belgium
Luxembourg
Austria
Switzerland
Denmark
Finland
Germany
Japan
Korea
Iceland
Meanindex
Index of teacher feedback in science lessons
29. Feedback and science performance
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
Kosovo
Georgia
Moldova
Romania
Lebanon
Jordan
Montenegro
FYROM
DominicanRepublic
Malta
Turkey
HongKong(China)
Bulgaria
UnitedKingdom
Thailand
Brazil
UnitedArabEmirates
Russia
France
Qatar
TrinidadandTobago
B-S-J-G(China)
Portugal
Algeria
Lithuania
ChineseTaipei
CzechRepublic
Mexico
Israel
Colombia
Peru
VietNam
Latvia
Hungary
Singapore
Tunisia
Germany
Japan
Belgium
Poland
Chile
Macao(China)
Australia
CostaRica
Norway
Spain
Netherlands
Indonesia
OECDaverage
SlovakRepublic
Croatia
Canada
Italy
Greece
Uruguay
Austria
Denmark
Ireland
Sweden
CABA(Argentina)
Estonia
Switzerland
Luxembourg
UnitedStates
Korea
Finland
NewZealand
Iceland
Score-pointdifference
Change in science performance associated with a one-unit increase in the index of teacher feedback
in science lessons
After accounting for student characteristics and observed and unobserved school features
Before accounting for student characteristics and observed and unobserved school features
30. Teacher feedback relates to students epistemic beliefs
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
FYROM
Jordan
DominicanRepublic
Georgia
Turkey
Montenegro
Qatar
HongKong(China)
Luxembourg
UnitedArabEmirates
Israel
Peru
Kosovo
Bulgaria
Tunisia
Malta
UnitedKingdom
Japan
Lebanon
Moldova
NewZealand
UnitedStates
Brazil
B-S-J-G(China)
Russia
VietNam
Korea
Colombia
Singapore
Switzerland
Canada
ChineseTaipei
Algeria
Romania
Croatia
Norway
France
TrinidadandTobago
Portugal
Indonesia
Thailand
OECDaverage
Uruguay
Ireland
CABA(Argentina)
Australia
Mexico
Iceland
Chile
Sweden
CostaRica
Macao(China)
Lithuania
Hungary
CzechRepublic
Latvia
SlovakRepublic
Italy
Spain
Estonia
Netherlands
Belgium
Germany
Poland
Austria
Greece
Finland
Denmark
Changeintheindexofepistemicbeliefsin
science
Change in the index of epistemic beliefs in science associated with a one-unit increase in the index
of teacher feedback in science lessons
After accounting for student characteristics and observed and unobserved school features
Before accounting for student characteristics and observed and unobserved school features
31. Smaller classes make certain teaching practices more prevalent
-0.15
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
Up to 20 students From 21 to 25 students From 26 to 30 students More than 30 students
Schools’ average size of language-of-instruction classes
Index of…
Teacher feedback Teacher support Adaptive teaching Enquiry-based teaching Teacher-directed practices
32. Which teaching practices can help close the gender gap in
science career expectations?
0.95
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.15
Teacher-directed
practices
Teacher feedback Adaptive teaching Enquiry-based
teaching
Teacher support
Oddsratios
Girls Boys
Students are more likely to expect to work in a science-related career
33. Some explanations
• Exposing more girls to enquiry-based teaching practices could
not only draw more of them into a science career but may
also close the gender gap in traditionally male-dominated
science occupations.
– On average across OECD countries, the association between
exposure to enquiry-based teaching and expecting a career in
science is more positive for girls, but only for male-dominated
occupations, including engineers and science-related technicians.
– The probability that students see themselves as health
professionals – typically female-dominated occupations – increases
equally for boys and girls when they are more exposed to enquiry-
based teaching.
34. Which teaching practices are better in fostering students’
dispositions towards science?
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
Girl Boy Girl Boy Girl Boy Girl Boy Girl Boy
Teacher-directed
practices
Teacher feedback Adaptive teaching Enquiry-based teaching Teacher support
Indexchangeperone-unitincreaseintheindices
ofteachingpractices
Interest in broad science topics Enjoyment of science
Science self-efficacy Participation in science-related activities
35. Some conclusions
• Although enquiry-based science teaching is negatively associated with
science performance, some of this association is due to the school
context (lack of disciplinary climate) => enquiry-based science teaching is
sensitive to the school context.
• Enquiry-based science teaching is more effective than other practices in
improving students dispositions towards science and in closing the
gender gap in science career expectations.
• Teacher-directed instruction is a robust teaching practice that is likely to
deliver on its promise regardless of the surrounding environment.
• No evidence that the joint use of enquiry-based teaching and teacher-
directed instruction is positively associated with science performance.
36. Some conclusions
• Adaptive teaching in science lessons is positively correlated with science
performance. This relationship is particularly strong in the Nordic
countries which are known for their comprehensive education systems.
• The negative association between teacher feedback and students’ science
performance can be attributed to the fact that students who require the
most feedback tend to be low performers. When the frequency of
feedback is taken into account, the findings show that it is the most
frequent feedback that is negatively associated with performance.
• All teaching practices are effective in improving students’ dispositions
towards science (with varying degrees).
37. Find out more about our work at www.oecd.org/pisa
– All publications
– The complete micro-level database
Email: Andreas.Schleicher@OECD.org
Twitter: SchleicherOECD
Wechat: AndreasSchleicher
Thank you
Editor's Notes
Thailand is the only country were students in the top quarter of discipline derive a benefit from exposure to enquiry-based science teaching.
Thailand’s approach to science teaching emphasises the importance of learning by doing and an activity-based curriculum: practical work done by students is the cornerstone of science teaching. First implementation of new curriculum in 1976.
Resources were geared towards this end:
Curricula were designed with a focus on activity driven learning
Theory and practice are integrated
Teachers are provided with pedagogical support and materials including training, guidelines and equipment
However challenges persisted in relation to: teacher training, school resources, large classes and extension of compulsory schooling age.
Scatterplot of the two practices + science performance shown with colours
The answer is no. The two practices do not generate an additional benefit when combined.
Associations are negative because students who require more feedback tend to be the low performers (the significance of the association disappears after accounting for performance in math and reading). However, when the frequency of feedback is taken into account, students who receive feedback in every lesson tend to have lower science achievements, while feedback is positively associated with performance for those who receive feedback only in some lessons.