2. INCIDENCE
⢠Human and financial burden of acute
pancreatitis continues to grow
⢠Incidence of acute pancreatitis in the US
â Varies from 4.9 to 73.4 per 100,000 patients
â increasing
⢠Death may occur before diagnosis
â 10% of patients with severe disease
3. ⢠14th most common cause of death due to GI
diseases
⢠Second most common inpatient GI diagnosis
in the united states
â After cholelithiasis and acute cholecystitis
â ahead of acute appendicitis
⢠Overall mortality rate less than 5%
4. DEFINITIONS
⢠PHYSIOLOGICALLY
âas an acute inflammatory process of the
pancreas
âwith variable involvement of other regional
tissues or remote organ System
5. ďCLINICALLY
ďPresenting with 2 of the following 3 criteria:
1. Symptoms (e.g, Epigastric pain) consistent
with pancreatitis
2. Serum amylase or lipase level greater than 3
times the laboratoryâs upper limit of normal
3. Radiologic imaging consistent with
pancreatitis,
â (usually using CT or MRI)
20. ⢠The initial phase is characterized by intrapancreatic
digestive enzyme activation and acinar cell injury
⢠The second phase of pancreatitis involves the
activation, chemoattraction, and sequestration of
leukocytes and macrophages in the pancreas,
resulting in an enhanced intrapancreatic
inflammatory reaction
⢠The third phase of pancreatitis is due to the effects
of activated proteolytic enzymes and cytokines,
released by the inflamed pancreas, on distant organs
pathogenesis
21. Pathogenesis
⢠conversion of trypsinogen to trypsin, within
acinar cells
⢠Trypsin catalyzes conversion of proenzymes,
including trypsinogen and inactive precursors
of elastase, phospholipase A2 (PLA2), and
carboxypeptidase, to active enzymes
⢠Trypsin also may activate the complement and
kinin systems.
⢠Active enzymes autodigest the pancreas and
initiate a cycle of releasing more active
enzymes
22. ⢠Pancreatic secretory trypsin inhibitor (PSTI,
now called SPINK1) binds and inactivates
about 20% of the trypsin activity.
⢠Low intraacinar calcium concentrations also
prevent further autoactivation of trypsin.
23. Clinical Features
⢠acute onset of persistent, severe epigastric
abdominal pain .
⢠In some patients, the pain may be in the right
upper quadrant or, rarely, confined to the left
side.
⢠In patients with gallstone pancreatitis, the pain is
well localized and the onset of pain is rapid,
reaching maximum intensity in 10 to 20 minutes.
24. ⢠in patients with pancreatitis due to hereditary or metabolic
causes or alcohol, the onset of pain may be less abrupt and the
pain may be poorly localized.
⢠In approximately 50 percent of patients, the pain radiates to
the back. The pain persists for several hours to days and may be
partially relieved by sitting up or bending forward.
⢠Approximately 90 percent of patients have associated nausea
and vomiting which may persist for several hours.
⢠Patients with severe acute pancreatitis may have dyspnea due
to diaphragmatic inflammation secondary to pancreatitis,
pleural effusions, or adult respiratory distress syndrome.
25. ⢠there may be significant tenderness to
palpation in the epigastrium or more diffusely
over the abdomen
⢠may have abdominal distention and
hypoactive bowel sounds due to an ileus
secondary to inflammation
⢠Patients may have scleral icterus due to
obstructive jaundice due to
choledocholithiasis or edema of the head of
the pancreas.
26. ⢠severe pancreatitis may have fever,
tachypnea, hypoxemia, and hypotension.
⢠In 3 percent of patients with acute
pancreatitis, ecchymotic discoloration may be
observed in the periumbilical region (Cullen's
sign) or along the flank (Grey Turner sign.
⢠Nonspecific, suggest the presence of
retroperitoneal bleeding in the setting of
pancreatic necrosis
27.
28. Lab Findings
⢠Serum amylase rises within 6 to 12 hours of the
onset
⢠short half-life of approximately 10 hours and in
uncomplicated attacks returns to normal within
three to five days.
⢠Serum amylase elevation of greater than three times
the upper limit of normal has a sensitivity for the
diagnosis of acute pancreatitis of 67 to 83 percent
and a specificity of 85 to 98 percent
29. ⢠Serum lipase has a sensitivity and specificity
for acute pancreatitis ranging from 82 to 100
percent.
⢠Serum lipase rises within four to eight hours
of the onset of symptoms, peaks at 24 hours,
and returns to normal within 8 to 14 days
44. Scoring systems
⢠Ranson âs Criteria
⢠Acute Physiology and Chronic Health
Examination (APACHE)-II Scoring
⢠Computed Tomography Severity Index (CTSI)
⢠Bedside Index for Severity in Acute
Pancreatitis (BISAP) Scoring
45.
46.
47.
48.
49. APACHE II score
⢠Apache score of ⼠8 Organ failure Substantial
pancreatic necrosis (at least 30% glandular
necrosis according to contrast-enhanced CT)
⢠Interpretation:
â If the score ⼠3: severe pancreatitis likely.
â If the score < 3, severe pancreatitis is unlikely
⢠Score 0 to 2 : 2% mortality
⢠Score 3 to 4 : 15% mortality
⢠Score 5 to 6 : 40% mortality
⢠Score 7 to 8 : 100% mortality
62. Acute pancreatitis
Management
⢠Severe pancreatitis carries a mortality of 80%
⢠Interventions in the first 24hrs can help to minimise the
morbidity and mortality.
63. Management Points:
⢠IV fluids
⢠Relief of pain
⢠Role of antibiotics
⢠Nutritional support
⢠Role of endoscopy
64. Acute pancreatitis
IV Fluids
⢠1-2 liters of fluid rapidly in first 4hrs
⢠200 â 250 ml / hr for 24 to 72 hrs
⢠Ringer lactate better than normal saline
⢠Take precautions in CCF, elderly
68. Acute pancreatitis
Role of prophylactic Antibiotics
⢠Debatable
⢠SIRS v/s Infection
⢠Infection is unlikely in the first week
⢠No role of prophylatic antibiotics
69.
70.
71.
72. Acute pancreatitis
Nutritional Support
Enteral has distinct advantages
⢠Decreased morbidity
⢠Decreased multi organ failure
⢠Decreased systemic infection
⢠Decreased need for operative intervention
73. Acute pancreatitis
Nutritional Support
Enteral has distinct advantages
â Mild â oral feeds in 1 â 3 days
â Severe â Enteral feeds by 3 â 4 days
Use NJ or NG tubes
Better than TPN
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80. Drugs in Acute Mild Pancreatitis
⢠H2RA, PPI - No role
⢠Aprotinin - Not effective
⢠Gabexate - ? Effective
⢠Octreotide - Not effective
⢠Somatostatin - Effective â ERCP
⢠Dextran - NOT known
⢠Lexipafant - ? Effective
81. Role of Endoscopy
⢠Biliary pancreatitis
⢠Pancreatic Necrosis
⢠Ductal Disruption
82. Role of Endoscopy
Gall stone pancreatitis
Pancreatitis with suspected gall
stones
Abnormal Liver function tests
USG Abd/MRCP
ERCP
CBD Clearance
86. Role of Endoscopy
⢠Ductal Disruption
â Can result in unilateral pleural effusion, pancreatic
ascites, or enlarging ďŹuid collection
â MRCP and ERCP might be used to identify a large
disruption in ducts
â Bridging stent across the disruption usually
promotes duct healing
87.
88.
89. Roles of Advanced Imaging Techniques
⢠Role of CT changed over time
⢠Best use of an early-stage CT scan is to conďŹrm a
diagnosis
⢠Best use of a CT scan after the first 5 to 7 days is
to evaluate the presence of local complications
⢠MRI is helpful in distinguishing walled-off
necrosis from a pseudocyst.
⢠Endoscopic ultrasonography highly sensitive test
for detecting cholelithiasis and
choledocholithiasis and could be an alternative to
MRCP, which has limited accuracy for detecting
smaller gallstones or sludge.
96. other criteria or markers of
severity
⢠used in clinical studies include
⢠CT severity index,
⢠urinary concentration of trypsinogen
activating peptide (TAP), and
⢠serum levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH),
⢠procalcitonin,
⢠CAPAP-B, IL-6, and
⢠other markers of acute phase injury
97. Blood Urea Nitrogen
⢠Hemoconcentration has been shown to be an
accurate predictor of necrosis and organ
failure.
⢠Both the BUN level and the hematocrit or Hgb
level are routine laboratory tests that may
provide information on changes in
intravascular volume status.
⢠Either test may be used in monitoring the
early response to initial fluid resuscitation.
98. ⢠Wu and colleagues recently performed a large
observational cohort study on data from 69 U.S.
hospitals and found that BUN may be superior to
Hgb (but not hematocrit).
⢠For every 5 mg/dL increase in BUN during the
first 24 hours, the age- and gender-adjusted odds
ratio for mortality increased by 2.2.
99. ⢠BUN yielded the highest accuracy in
determining mortality at 24 and 48 hours.
⢠serial BUN measurements would be the most
valuable single routine laboratory test for
predicting mortality in acute pancreatitis.
100. Hematocrit
⢠A high hematocrit on admission, or 1 that fails to
decrease after 24 hours of rehydration,
⢠is thought to be a sign of hemoconcentration
from retroperitoneal fluid loss
ď is a marker of severe disease.
⢠One study showed that a hematocrit greater
than 44% had a sensitivity of 72% on admission
and of 94% after 24 hours in detecting organ
failure.
⢠The negative predictive value at 24 hours was
96%.
101. ⢠Although 1 study from Germany found no
correlation between admission hematocrit
and organ failure,
⢠most investigators have found hematocrit to
be important in the management of patients
with acute pancreatitis.
⢠An elevated hematocrit (>44%) is a predictor
for the development of necrosis.
⢠the hematocrit should be observed at
admission for prognostic purposes and
⢠followed prospectively to assist in guiding the
rate of IV volume resuscitation.
102. C-Reactive Protein
⢠an acute-phase reactant produced by the liver
is used extensively in Europe as a marker of
severe pancreatitis.
⢠CRP is inexpensive to measure and readily
available.
⢠At a cutoff of 21 mg/dL, the sensitivity of CRP
in detecting severe disease in patients with
acute pancreatitis is only 60%, but the test is
highly specific.
⢠At a lower cutoff (10 mg/L), CRP becomes
highly sensitive, but the test specificity drops
103. Interleukin-6
⢠an acute-phase reactant that is produced by a
variety of cells and induces hepatic synthesis
of CRP.
⢠Several studies have shown that this cytokine
is reasonably accurate in differentiating mild
from severe disease.
105. Phospholipase A2
â˘PLA2 is involved in the release of prostaglandin
precursors such as arachidonic acid from cell
membranes.
â˘PLA2 also degrades surfactant in the lung and
may play a role in the pulmonary dysfunction
associated with acute pancreatitis.
⢠Levels of catalytic type II PLA2 have been
reported to differ- entiate between mild and
severe disease within 24 hours of admission.
106. Urinary Trypsinogen Activation
Peptide
⢠may serve as an early predictor of severity in
patients with acute pancreatitis.
⢠Normally, trypsinogen is cleaved to trypsin in
the intestinal lumen by the enzyme
enterokinase.
⢠Premature intrapancreatic activation of
trypsin during acute pancreatitis results in the
release of TAP.
107. ⢠The degree of pancreatic necrosis and
systemic inflammatory response or sepsis is
directly related to TAP concentration.
⢠Elevated urinary TAP (>30 nmol/L) correlates
with disease severity.
⢠The test can be applied within 12 hours of
admission.
⢠The positive predictive value of an elevated
TAP for severe pancreatitis is 80%, and
⢠the negative predictive value approaches
108. Procalcitonin
⢠This propeptide is another acute-phase
reactant that has been shown to differentiate
mild from severe acute pancreatitis within the
first 24 hours after symptom onset.
⢠A serum strip test has been developed that
has a sensitivity of 86% and a specificity of
95% in detecting organ failure.
109. Prognosis
⢠Approximately 75% to 80%, of patients with
acute pancre- atitis have a resolution of the
disease process (interstitial pan- creatitis) and
do not enter the second phase.
⢠20% of patients, a more protracted course
develops, often related to the necrotizing
process (necrotizing pancreatitis) lasting
weeks to months.
110. ⢠Mortality in the second phase is related to a
combination of factors, including organ failure
secondary to sterile necrosis, infected
necrosis, or complications from surgical
intervention.
⢠There are 2 time peaks for mortality in acute
pancreatitis.
111. ⢠Most studies in the United States and Europe
reveal that about half the deaths occur within
the first week or 2, usually from multiorgan
failure.
⢠Death can be very rapid.
⢠About one quarter of all deaths in Scotland
occurred within 24 hours of admission, and
one third within 48 hours.
⢠After the second week of illness,
ďpatients succumb to pancreatic infection
associated with multiorgan failure
112. ⢠Some studies in Europe report a very high late
mortality rate from infection.
⢠Patients who are older and have comorbid illnesses
have a substantially higher mortality rate than
younger healthier patients.
⢠In those who survive their illness, severe pancreatic
necrosis can scar the pancreas, resulting in a stricture
of the main pancreatic duct,
⢠with subsequent obstructive chronic pancreatitis and
⢠permanent diabetes mellitus and
⢠nutrient malabsorption
113. ⢠In severe acute pancreatitis, a CT scan helps
determine the outlook or prognosis.
⢠If the scan indicates that the pancreas is only
mildly swollen,
ďthe prognosis is excellent.
⢠If the scan shows large areas of destroyed
pancreas,
ďthe prognosis is poor.
114. ⢠When acute pancreatitis is mild,
⢠the death rate is about 5% or less.
⢠with severe damage and bleeding, or when
the inflammation is not confined to the
pancreas,
⢠the death rate can be as high as 10 to 50%.
115. Take Home Points
⢠The cornerstone in the diagnosis of acute pancreatitis is elevation in
amylase and lipase, but these enzymes are not useful in assessing
disease severity.
⢠At 24 hours of admission BISAP score is accurate, less cumbersome
for early identification of patients at risk for in-hospital mortality.
⢠Several simple and easy to obtain risk factors, including BMI, age,
hematocrit, BUN, and presence of pleural effusions on a chest x-ray,
should be documented to assist in severity assessment.
⢠C-reactive protein is the most heavily utilized, easy to employ,
readily available, and inexpensive acute phase reactant, and it
remains the gold standard for predicting severity of AP beyond 48
hrs of symptom onset.
⢠The development of persistent or multiorgan failure during acute
pancreatitis is associated with the highest risk of death.
⢠Managing pancreatitis is NOT just starving a patient, giving IV
fluids and analgesics. Itâs about vigilantly observing for
complications, timely diagnosing and appropriate action.
116. Reference
⢠Sleisengers 10th
⢠Harrisons principle of int med.19 Ed
⢠UPTODATE
⢠American journal of gastroenterology,guidelines of AC
Pancreatitis 2013
⢠IAP/APA evidence-based guidelines for the management of
acute pancreatitis,2013
⢠NEJM,Acute Pancreatitis Chris E. Forsmark, M.D., Santhi Swaroop
Vege, M.D., and C. Mel Wilcox, M.D.
A number of clinical scoring systems and biomarkers have been developed to facilitate risk stratiďŹcation during this phase. Whereas previous scoring systems such as the Ranson or ImrieâGlasgow scores required 48 hours to complete, 2 scoring systems were recently developed and involve a simpliďŹed approach that can be performed during the ďŹrst 24 hours of hospitalization. The Bedside Index of Severity in Acute Pancreatitis is a 5-factor scoring system based on blood urea nitrogen (BUN) level 25 mg/dL, impaired mental status, systemic inďŹammatory response syndrome (SIRS), age 60 years or older, and pleural effusion (each of these criteria count as a single point). A Bedside Index of Severity in Acute Pancreatitis score 2 within 24 hours is associated with a 7-fold increase in risk of organ failure and 10-fold increase in risk of mortality.
The APAChe II scoring system takes into account 12 variables
which include, (1) Body temperature, (2) mean arterial pressure
(mm hg), (3) heart rate(hR), (4) respiratory rate (R.R/mt), (5)
Oxygenation (mm hg), (6) Ph, (7) Na (mmol/l), (8) k (mmol/l), (9)
Creatinine (mg/100ml), (10) haematocrit, (11) total leucocyte
count and the (12) Glasgow coma score. To eliminate the problem
of the missing values and concerns about the assumption that an
unmeasured variable was normal, the measurement of all the 12
variables was made mandatory for the usage of APAChe II. The
recorded values of the variables are based on the most deranged
values during the past 24 hours.
Because age and severe chronic health problems refect a dimin-
ished physiological reserve, they have been directly incorporated
into APAChe II. Also, emergency surgery and non operative
patients with severe, chronic organ system dysfunction were given
Surgery SectionJournal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 2011 June, Vol-5(3): 459-463
Rithin Suvarna et al., APACHE II scoring in acute pancreatitis www.jcdr.net
460 460
fve additional points in comparison to the elective surgical patients
who were given only two points because patients with severe
chronic conditions are not considered to be candidates for elective
surgery
Management
AP â cytokines â vasodilatation â volume depletion
Loss of fluid leads to
â pancreatic microcirculation with â chance of developing
necrosis
â Intestinal perfusion - â bacterial translocation
â Urine out put
âSimple therapy that can dramatically improve patient out comesâ
RL reduces the incidence of SIRS by 80% compared with saline resuscitation, although these ďŹndings await further conďŹrmation. Nevertheless, RL is a reasonable choice for initial resuscitation, based on its positive effects on acid-base homeostasis, compared with large-volume saline resuscitation. RL has calcium.
In AP, there are
additional theoretical benefi ts to using the more pH-balanced
lactated Ringer â s solution for fl uid resuscitation compared with
normal saline. Low pH activates the trypsinogen, makes the
acinar cells more susceptible to injury and increases the severity
of established AP in experimental studies. Although both are
isotonic crystalloid solutions, normal saline given in large volumes may lead to the development of a non-anion gap, hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis
Presence of pain worsens organ failure
Several practice guidelines recommend consideration of patient-controlled analgesia and administration of intermittent doses of intravenous narcotic analgesics.. There is no evidence from human studies to indicate which speciďŹc opiates are best. We recommend a comprehensive pain management approach that includes patient education, collecting patientsâ histories of chronic pain, and using validated pain instruments to assess pain relief. Patients who receive repeated administration of narcotic analgesics should have oxygen saturation monitored.
Decreased morbidity
Decreased multi organ failure
Decreased systemic infection
Decreased need for operative intervention
Aprotinin: Tripsyn inhibitor
Gabexate prorease inhibitor. (No dec. In mortality)
A recent meta-analysis performed by Andriulli and colleagues demonstrated a benefit of somatostatin (12 studies), but not octreotide (10 studies), in the prevention of ERCP-induced acute pancreatitis.[4]Â Indeed, physiologic studies have demonstrated relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi in response to somatostatin, and increased sphincter contractility in response to octreotide.
Lexipafant (Platlet activating factor inhibitor)
Owing to its pharmacologic effects on the sphincter, somatostatin is contraindicated before sphincter of Oddi manometry.[5]Â The cost benefit of somatostatin prophylaxis in patients with a history of ERCP-induced pancreatitis requires further study at some point. The adverse effect of octreotide on the sphincter suggests that it should be avoided in this setting.[6,7]
Although low molecular weight (LMW) dextran has been said to decrease the lethality of experimental acute pancreatitis (AP) by reversing stasis in the pancreatic microcirculation, the actual mechanism(s) of action is unknown
Lexipafant:
There has been a shift away from urgent surgical debridement of infected necrosis toward more conservative, less invasive approaches, indicated by the most recent international consensus for interventions in necrotizing pancreatitis. In a multicenter, randomized, controlled trial from The Netherlands, a step-up approach to management of infected necrosis was compared with open necrosectomy. The step-up approach involved placement of percutaneous drainage catheters in addition to treatment with antibiotics. The catheter was irrigated and upsized as necessary. Among patients whose clinical condition failed to improve within 72 hours, minimally invasive debridement was performed via a retroperitoneal approach. This step-up approach reduced major complications or death by 29% compared with traditional open necrosectomy. The median time to intervention was 29 to 30 days. Four to 6 weeks after the onset of pancreatitis, an acute necrotic collection develops into walled-off necrosis (Figure 4). Physicians should intervene only if patients have symptoms that can be attributed to the collection (persistent abdominal pain, anorexia, nausea, or vomiting due to mechanical obstruction or secondary infection). Several studies have shown the feasibility of direct endoscopic necrosectomy using a transgastric approach for walled-off sterile necrosis. required for successful implementation of this approach. In addition, a recent multicenter randomized trial from The Netherlands compared endoscopic with surgical necrosectomy for management of patients with walled-off infected necrosis. The median time from onset of illness to intervention was 6 to 8 weeks. Endoscopic treatment reduced levels of inďŹammatory factors (such as interleukin-6), and the risk of new onset multiorgan failure, intra-abdominal hemorrhage, enterocutaneous or pancreatic ďŹstula, or death decreased by 60%.
Symptoms include shortness of breath, abdominal pain, and even early satiety, with vomiting if the collection compresses the stomach. Noninvasive imaging techniques such as. When a ductal disruption occurs in an area of extensive necrosis, a multidisciplinary team of therapeutic endoscopists, interventional radiologists, and surgeons should be consulted for optimal management.
The role of computed tomography (CT) in assessing patients with acute pancreatitis has changed with time. A CCET scan obtained within the ďŹrst several days of illness cannot be used to determine whether a patient has necrotizing or severe interstitial pancreatitis. This might be because intrapancreatic ďŹuid causes heterogeneous enhancement, which can indicate necrosis. Over a period of several days, the ďŹuid can be reabsorbed such that a subsequent CT scan clearly shows the absence of necrosis. As such, patients should not be evaluated by CT within a few days after the onset of disease to establish the presence or extent of pancreatic necrosis. The best use of an early-stage CT scan is to conďŹrm a diagnosis of acute pancreatitis when the clinical situation is unclear. The best use of a CT scan after the ďŹrst 5 to 7 days is to evaluate the presence of local complications in patients with moderately severe or severe pancreatitis to guide ongoing care.
In walled-off necrosis, there are variable amounts of ďŹuid and solid debris that can be visualized using T2-weighted imaging.
Patients who have severe acute biliary pancreatitis with signs of cholangitis should undergo ERCP within 24 hours ERCP should not be used routinely for patients with mild gallstone pancreatitis because it can increase complications.
A meta-analysis of 8 randomized controlled trials calculated a pooled odds ratio of 0.22 for development of post-ERCP pancreatitis with stent placement
Various NSAIDs evaluated. Indomethacin PR reduces post ERCP pancreatitis by 45%
Continued alcohol consumption, smoking, and recurrent biliary complications are the major risk factors for disease recurrence. Multiple societies recommend early cholecystectomy to prevent recurrent episodes of gallstone-associated pancreatitis based on early recurrence rates as high as 30% among patients awaiting cholecystectomy. Among patients who are poor candidates for surgery, endoscopic sphincterotomy can reduce the likelihood of recurrent pancreatitis but is not as effective as cholecystectomy in reducing further biliary complications.