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HINKING SKILLS- THE MISSING LINK TO IMPROVE PERFORMANCE - A FRAMEWORK.
by dr Renalde Huysamen
UFS
2012
INTRODUCTION
Higher education institutions are facing new challenges, requiring high levels of individual performance, quality and accountability. Institutions are accordingly attempting to develop and
implement performance management systems to drive quality and ensure optimum individual performance. It might be tempting to use your performance management system to impress
your top management— who traditionally focus on measuring everything and valuing nothing. But, most members of staff are put off by metrics scorecards and the accompanying threat of
punishment or even the vague promise of performance rewards. In stark contrast to this traditional approach to performance management, this paper will present the case of how line
managers of mostly illiterate service level workers improved performance while developing critical thinking skills through on - the - job coaching at the University of the Free State (UFS), in
South Africa. This improvement in performance is the result of a unique performance management programme designed for service level workers of the UFS. A rationale for and overview of
the programme, with its focus on critical thinking skills, will be provided and in particular the on - the - job coaching part of the programme (process and outcomes) will be highlighted.
LITERATURE REVIEW
1. THINKING SKILLS
Socrates set the agenda for the tradition of critical thinking by reflectively questioning common beliefs and explanations carefully distinguishing those beliefs that are reasonable and logical
from those which lack adequate evidence or rational foundation. There are many ways to define the concept of critical thinking. Halonen (1995:75) is of the opinion that the term is
"overworked and under analyzed". During the 8th Annual International Conference on Critical Thinking and Education Reform in the USA, Scriven and Paul gave a definition of the national
Council for Excellence in Critical thinking. Concepts that were included in an operational definition of critical thinking were "conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing and/or
evaluating information gathered from or generated by, observation, experience reflection, reasoning or communication as a guide to belief and action" (Paul and Elder 2009). It is essential
that we learn to think critically, as we need to think our way to knowledge (Paul 2009). Paul (1990:xv) stresses that "thought is the key to knowledge". Thinking can not be taken out of
knowledge. This challenge implies that we have to reason ourselves out of our present thinking and into thinking that is more or less novel to us if we are to gain genuine knowledge. In the
process, we need others to probe and question our thinking, but that they will present their thinking in a way that stimulates our thinking. We distort the nature of knowledge and the
conditions under which it is acquired if we think knowledge is something gathered by one person and given to others in the form of a collection of sentences to remember. If this is the case
we deny others intellectual growth. Applying critical thinking skills can help us to -re-examine and reconstruct own beliefs in order to be more rational, self-aware, honest and fair in our
action (Paul 2009).
Education should encourage intellectual development, yet classroom instruction according to Paul (1990:xv), often falls short of this goal, because it deteriorates into a "typically didactic,
one-dimensional, and indifferent, when not antiethical, to reason" Learning becomes often dependant on memorisation and recall and students come up with "canned answers", because this
is what is expected from them in the name of so-called critical thinking. Too often educators do not encourage students to question what they see, hear or read, as educators when they were

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students did not question what was presented to them for belief (Paul 1990; Mumm and Kirsting 1997;Coleman et al 2002; Elder and Paul 2010b). Similarly, managers in organisations
seldom isolate critical thinking skills as a specific skill in the work place. Most hope or assume that subordinates will develop these skills as a by-product of previous learning. However,
teaching critical thinking skills in the work place can help employees to question firstly, what they know and understand about their own work responsibilities and secondly, helping them to
question their own actions in the work place. Critical thinking will also help employees in all areas of their life, examining the claims, evidence, assumptions, conclusions, implications and
consequences of ideas, issues and actions. Skills in critical thinking are essential for employees as their internal and external customers need to be protected from unhelpful, unsubstantiated
and harmful practices. Customers need to be assured that service-delivery is based on the best evidence, knowledge and practices in a given work related situation. Employees are expected
to be problem solvers, but managers seldom isolate critical thinking as a specific skill in the work place. Developing the ability to think critically enhance performance. Some problems
experienced in industry where management and subordinates omit to apply critical thinking are:
wrong decisions made
symptoms of problems are addresses instead of root causes being eliminated
action plans based on the wrong decisions are implemented
mistrust emerges between managers and shop floor workers (Huysamen 1997).
Unless a "thinking environment" is created in which employees are empowered to fully understand their respective tasks, be aware of the required standards of these tasks, know why it is
required of them and be able to solve problems and make decisions the implementation of a performance management system will not ensure that services will be delivered effectively.
Employees need to think critically about their responsibilities, if not, they will not accept responsibility and accountability for service delivery.
The national Council for Excellence in Critical thinking (Paul 2000) states that to develop the mind with respect to critical thinking requires extensive practice and long term cultivation. In the
working situation a very effective way to practice critical thinking is through coaching on a daily basis. Through the process of coaching, task related know-how can thus be transferred and
cognitive capacity built.
2 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THINKING AND COMMUNICATION SKILLS-COACHING.
The most important mechanisms for the transfer of knowledge are the human skills of communication and interpersonal relationships (Wigg, 1997:54). Evans (1990:172) says that oral
communication is divided into two basic components - the 'what' and the 'how'. The 'what' or content of an oral message requires skill in marshalling thoughts and ideas in a structured and
sequenced order that listeners can easily follow and absorb. the 'how' or tone of the message - the way of communicating it by intonation, expression, emphasis and register - serve to help
and promote its successful delivery. thus successful oral communication is a happy blend of message organisation and delivery skills. Evans (1990:178) also believes that face-to-face
communication is the lifeblood of the organisation and that there is no acceptable substitute for people talking and reacting in close, direct contact.
Paul (2002) argues that communication in short is always a transaction between at least two logics. In reading there is the logic of the thinking of the author and the logic of the thinking of
the reader. The critical reader or listener construct (and so translates) the logic of the writer or speaker into the logic of the readers or listeners thinking and experience. this entails disciplined
intellectual work. The end result is a new creation; the sender's thinking for the first time now exists within the recipient's mind. Allen (1997) states that 'smart thinking' can also improve
your capacity to set your communication in context. It alerts you to the importance of:
the audience and their expectations of what the coach is doing
the informal requirements upon the coach to communicate in a certain way in a situation

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the coaches own assumptions and biases, which will need to be considered and explored through communication
Allen explains that the purposes of reasoning are what arguments and explanations seek to achieve. Arguments predicts future events, establishes what is or what was the case, or show why
a certain action should occur.
The implication for management is that they could influence the thinking of subordinates through face- to –face two-way communication. This type of communication could be used to
predict future events, establish current job related requirements and managers could explain why things are required in a certain way.
3. TRANSFER OF TASK RELATED KNOW- HOW.
Meehan (1988:6) states that most individuals can be coached to a certain level of performance. Coaching can be used to transfer task relate know-how. Clur (1998:2) argues that the brain
thinks in 'patterns of thought' established through experience. When the brain recognises a thought pattern, it knows what to expect. For example, on seeing a green traffic light ahead, a
driver knows the light will change form green, to orange, to red. The brains pattern-making ability enables people to learn from experience and make meaning of incomplete information.
However, it has many disadvantages. Thinking is influenced by emotions. In times of change and when placed in stressful situations, people develop 'mental blocks' that inhibit effective
critical thinking and problem solving. People think differently and interpret information differently. On seeing a red traffic light one driver may slow down to avoid having an accident. Another
driver may increase speed, in anticipation that the light will soon change to green (Clur 1999:2). similarly, tacit knowledge, experience and the critical thinking utilised influence employee
behaviour. Rave and Prasser (1996) argue that tacit knowledge, by its very nature, is very difficult to transfer or communicate. Clur (1999:3) argues that it is important to distinguish between
these categories. For example, it is difficult to transfer knowledge acquired through years of practice in performing manual tasks that involve eye-hand co-ordination. In contrast to Raven and
Prasser (1996), Clur (1999:3) argues that the transfer of task related know-how gained through job related experience can be facilitated, if the knowledge to be transferred is delineated and
there is a clear understanding of the thinking steps followed in the process.
It is clear from these authors that coaching could influence performance positively and even tacit knowledge could be transferred. Individual Performance Management systems are
traditionally used to plan performance, employees agree upon objectives (for example, improved housekeeping), they agree upon specific standards and what evidence they would provide
when being assessed. If coaching techniques could be provided to managers that will cultivate critical thinking skills of subordinates and direct their thinking about what to think about then
clearly some changes in behaviour to improve productivity could take place. Specific coaching techniques could then be developed to:
establish a standard in the mind of job related tasks required (Huysamen 1997, Clur 1999) cultivating the standards of critical thinking like significance, clarity, precision,
logic (Paul and Elder 2001a)
see a personal advantage in meeting requirements (cultivating breadth as a standard of critical thinking as defined by Paul and Elder 2001a)
foresee and identify potential problems (Lipe and Beasly 2004 and cultivating deductive and inductive and analogical reasoning as defined by Pesut and Herman 1999:237,
as well as fairness relevance as defined by Paul and Elder 2001a)
visualise the impact on the process if requirements or standards are not met (cultivating if-then-thinking as defined by Pesut and Herman 1999); and
take initiative to resolve problems and avoid mistakes (cultivating the following standards of critical thinking -clarity, accuracy, relevance, evidence as defined by Paul and
Elder 2001a)
raise vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely (Paul and Elder 2001b :1)
gather and assess relevant information (Paul and Elder 2001b: 1)

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come to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria (Paul and Elder 2001b:1)
communicate effectively (Paul 2002, Wiig 1997, Evans 1990, Clur 1999, Huysamen 1997,Allen 1997) with others to figure out solutions to complex problems (Paul and
Elder 2001b:1) while sorting out unnecessary data (cultivating accuracy as a standard of critical thinking (Paul and elder 2001a); and
ensure that parts of a situation is consciously reviewed (cultivating logic as a standard of thinking as defined by Paul and Elder 2001a).
Of particular interest in the South African situation is coaching is more difficult when the participants are from different cultures and people differ in their ability to cope with cognitive
complexity. In such situations the manager must accept different communication norms, seek to understand others, and verify that coaching was successful.
4.THE REALTIONSHIP BETWEEN PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT, COACHING AND THINKING SKILLS
Performance management (PM) is an important HRM process, which provides the basis for improving and developing performance. It can be defined as a “systematic process for improving
organisational performance by developing the performance of individuals and teams” (Armstrong, 2009, 618). The process should establish a shared understanding about what is to be
achieved and how to achieve it through managing people in such a way that it increases the probability of achieving success (Armstrong ibid). According to Bourne (2002), there is a dearth of
research-based studies on the implementation of performance management systems. There is a void in the literature on the relationship between PM and thinking skills.
5. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This paper focuses on the relationship between coaching, critical thinking and individual performance management systems within organisations. It requires a framework that aligns these
concepts to support service delivery.

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6. PROCEDURE
The project is implemented in 5 phases.
Before the implementation of phase 1 it is necessary to plan the project. This is done by involving a pilot group to test the training material used in phase 1. All stakeholders involved in the
project participate in the design of the material, namely, management, unions, facilitators, the pilot group and Human Resources personnel.
Phase 1: Involves a one day workshop for supervisors on critical thinking and coaching with the aim to draw up a training programme for on the job coaching and designing performance plans
over a period of 4 weeks. This theoretical training of supervisors ensures that supervisors understand the cognitive development process and are equipped to provide on the job coaching.
The supervisors are trained on the coaching techniques. They are then able to utilise the following techniques to transfer know how.
Technique for explaining requirements
Technique for feedback/action planning meetings
Technique for daily routine

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Coaching on the job is then incorporated as a key performance area for supervisors.
Phase 2: Involves the writing of the training material for the on the job coaching. Facilitators and supervisors co-design the performance plans of subordinates; focussing on ‘tasks’ and
‘standards’ for each employee.
Phase 3: Involves the on the job coaching over a period of 2 weeks. During this coaching supervisors are assisted by two facilitators. During the coaching work related problems are solved and
decisions made to improve service delivery. This phase is characterised by active discussions between supervisors and subordinates. Where people have homogenous tasks, coaching takes
place in small teams. After the training the performance plans of subordinates are finalised and changes are where necessary.
Phase 4: Involves the formal signing of the performance plans by both parties. After six months celebration sessions are hold.
Phase 5: Involves training supervisors on how to utilise the Information Technology System.
7. FINDINGS
The process and performance plan documentation were acceptable:
The coaching was hard work but we now have standardised requirements. The requirements for performance is now clearly communicated. The process helped us to communicate to
employees that we all have a responsibility to work to meet the objectives of the UFS
Due to cultural differences, men do not easily accept women as line managers, they do not want to be told by a woman what to do. The process and specifically the coaching assisted us to
communicate requirements in such a way that the men accepted the requirements. The coaching made the contracting part of performance management much easier. People now understand
why things should be done in a particular way and they accepted responsibility. Thank you for empowering us, no more fears.
When people signed their performance plans it seemed that they not only understood what they are signing and why, but that they felt that they had the opportunity to have an input in their
daily tasks.
There is clarity that PM is taken seriously and I really enjoyed this training sessions
The fact that somebody from HR (external party) came in to help made the process more credible, it seems that the people understood that the supervisor had back-up.
Staff signed the performance plans individually without problems. Previously we listed tasks without the coaching and people refused calling in the union, after this training they understood
the what and the why and signed the plans without any negative feedback.
What was important was the fact that the facilitator /consultant used their language and translated the issues to me. The fact that he came externally gave the impression that the process is
trustworthy.
The process gave me an opportunity to explain what the requirements for bonuses are.

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It is clear from these findings that the process assisted to establish a standard in the mind of job related tasks required (Huysamen 1997, Clur 1999) and cultivate the standards of critical
thinking like significance, clarity, precision, logic (Paul and Elder 2001a). Subordinates and supervisors came to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions (performance plans) while testing their
planning against relevant criteria (Paul and Elder 2001b:1)
The coaching sessions were informative.
The techniques helped me to explain myself better.
Over and above explaining the requirements the coaching also helped me to understand the responsibilities of my subordinates as I am rather new in this role. It was important to get a
facilitator to explain to people in their own language.
The people felt that the UFS cares about them.
We went through the tasks together and they helped me jot down all the tasks as well as the activities for each task. We re- negotiated their tasks during the coaching, raise vital questions
and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely
The process helped me to schedule time to communicate with my subordinates. Subordinates want to know in detail what is required of them, for me it seemed to too much detail, but for
them it was necessary.
The fact that we did the coaching in teams had the advantage that people could also understand each other's work loads. The coaching helped people to better understand each other's needs.
One person reported that one of our Professors did not give the lab's key and therefore she can't clean if access not given. As her supervisor I asked the Professor to open the office. The
problem is now solved, the Professor now understand what is the implication if he does not provide the key and the cleaner understands why the office was locked. (The Professor said it was
due to the fact that he was scared to open office because of exam papers lying around). This helped me as the supervisor because I do not have the time to check their day to day problems.
People do not ask for help or know how to solve problems by themselves. One example was the daily cleaning of the vacuum cleaner (where they have to clean the bag). The coaching helped
the person to understand what could go wrong if they do not do it.
We previously gave the messengers certain fixed times to fetch documents. Unfortunately it has happened that documents had to be fetched in between these scheduled times and when we
asked the person to do that she did not want to do it because she thought she has to do it only at the scheduled times. The coaching helped the person to understand why she needs to pick up
documents even if it is not on the scheduled times and she is much more motivated after the training when requested to do fetch documents.
I now know how to communicate requirements in much more detail. Previously I communicated in concepts and people did not fully understand what is required of them.
The coaching provided people with the opportunity to explain requirements and raise vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely (Paul and Elder 2001b :1) and
gather and assess relevant information (Paul and Elder 2001b: 1). Supervisors and subordinates could come to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria
(Paul and Elder 2001b:1). The coaching provided an opportunity for more effective two-way communication (Paul 2002, Wiig 1997, Evans 1990, Clur 1999, Huysamen 1997,Allen 1997) with
others to figure out solutions to complex problems (Paul and Elder 2001b:1) while sorting out unnecessary data (cultivating accuracy as a standard of critical thinking (Paul and elder 2001a).

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Planning performance
We compiled the tasks with the help of the facilitators and then read it back to people to ensure understanding. even people who have been working here for long time still make mistakes, for
example, a cleaner not putting a water bottle into the fridge. This process improved performance because she realised how important it is for us to have water. We were able to negotiate
tasks.
We had the opportunity to explain how important their tasks are and made people feel part of the team again. It helped us to get rapport with the people because sometimes they think the
tasks as not meaningful.
They understand why there is a change in requirements. It was for me (supervisor) quite frustrating if they say to me in Professor's S's time we used to do it like this...' Now they understand
and accept why they have to do it in a new way. .
If there is a change in requirements people now ask when they should do it, they will give an input and provide reasons for when they can do it and when and why they cannot complete a task
in a particular way. They now negotiate tasks and they do it without complaining. We forget how important it is to negotiate tasks every year, even if the tasks are the same as the previous
year. One subordinate told me that at least now she knows for the first time that she is doing it right.
The workers were very positive when they signed the performance plans. They trusted the documents because we have spent so much time on the coaching of tasks.
Signing the plans is easy if we do the coaching before the time and negotiate the tasks and the standards through the training before the time. People trusted the document in itself as well as
the supervisors' intentions. People trust PM because of the coaching done before the time. The coaching lead to negotiations as well as a better understanding of the daily work for everybody.
We did it as a group and this also worked well because they could help to remind each other on specific tasks that they do.
It is clear that when people visualise the impact on the process if requirements or standards are not met (cultivating if-then-thinking as defined by Pesut and Herman 1999) they are much
more motivated. They see a personal advantage in meeting requirements (cultivating breadth as a standard of critical thinking as defined by Paul and Elder 2001a).Planning performance
through critical thinking skills and coaching ensure that parts of a situation is consciously reviewed (cultivating logic as a standard of thinking as defined by Paul and Elder 2001a).
8. CONCLUSION
There is a void in the literature on the relationship between critical thinking skills, coaching and performance management. If a strategy to assist people to plan their performance is not put in
place, chances are that performance management would always be resisted by members of staff and the unions. In this case the challenges were: identifying the critical thinking skills needed
for performance planning, coaching the skills and utilising the 'tasks' and standards as the basis for coaching material. These challenges was translated into a five phase project. A detailed
description of the findings of the effectiveness of the process regarding the process as a whole, the coaching and the planning of performance was provided. After analysing the
implementation processes used for the implementation of a performance management systems for service level workers, the final conclusion which could be made is that the application of
critical thinking skills through a process of coaching contributed to the fact that the staff accepted the new performance management system. The framework proved to be effective and that
it assisted supervisors to implement PM successfully. Until changes are firmly embedded in the culture, the performance management system is fragile and subject to regression. The impact

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of the work environment on managing performance cannot be ignored and dialogues should take place between staff and line managers as part of the performance cycle. An area for further
research could be to test the strategic framework in another context.
PERFORMANCE PLAN TEMPLATE: SERVICE WORKERS
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF PERFORMANCE NAME OF STAFF MEMBER: STAFF NO:
Excellent Performance: This job performance is outstanding in every
aspect of the work as seen in the performance plan.
Performance According to standard: This job performance does not
noticeably deviate from the tasks and standards as seen in the performance
plan. FACULTY / DEPT. /UNIT: DATE:
Poor Performance: This job performance is low and noticeably deviates
from the tasks and standards as seen in the performance plan.
CURRENT POSITION (JOB TITLE): YEARS IN CURRENT POSITION:

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NAME OF HEAD/ LINE MANAGER: REVIEW PERIOD:
Tasks/ Activities Standards Evaluation (Mark with )
Excellent Performance
Performance According to standard
Poor Performance
Excellent Performance
Performance According to standard
Poor Performance
Excellent Performance
Performance According to standard
Poor Performance
Any comments: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………......
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Signature supervisor: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Signature employee: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

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