Modernism emerged in the late 19th century as a rejection of traditional forms of art, literature, and social organization that were viewed as outdated in the new industrialized world. It grew out of earlier movements like Romanticism, Realism, and Aestheticism that emphasized individualism and subjective experience over established rules and conventions. Modernist artists and thinkers believed the modern industrial environment should inspire new forms of creative expression. While Modernism was originally a European phenomenon, it gained widespread prominence and was heavily promoted internationally by the United States in the mid-20th century.

1. The Beginnings of Modernism
Modernism is an historical trend of thought that
affirms the power of human beings to create,
improve, and reshape their environment with the aid
of scientific knowledge, technology and practical
experimentation – i.e, it is both progressive and
optimistic.
Growing out of the Enlightenment and the Industrial
Revolution, it was one the dominant ideologies of the
20thC and continues to underlie and influence
contemporary cultural, social and political practices
around the world.
The term covers many political, cultural and artistic
movements rooted in the changes in Western society
at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the
twentieth century.
In essence, the modernist movement argued that
the new realities of the industrial and mechanized
age were permanent and desirable.

2. Looking for Perfection
Broadly, Modernism describes
a series of reforming cultural
movements in art and
architecture, music, literature
and the applied arts which
emerged in the four decades
before 1914.
"Just as the ancients drew
the inspiration for their
arts from the world of
nature...so we should
draw ours from the
mechanized environment
we have created."
—Antonio Sant'Elia
Manifesto of Futurist
Architecture (1914)
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Miss Evelyn Leigh Ralliston, of Teaneck, New Jersey winner of the costume contest at
the first annual Ectomo Halloween Masquerade Ball, 1919

3. Change is good
Embracing change and the present,
modernism encompasses the works of
thinkers who rebelled against 19thC
academic and historicist traditions.
They believed that the ‘traditional’
forms of art, architecture, literature,
religious faith, social organization and
daily life were outdated in the face of
the new economic, social and political
aspects of an emerging fully
industrialized world.
Modern (quantum and relativistic)
physics, modern (analytical and
continental) philosophy and modern
number theory in mathematics date
from this period and contributed to
Modernist thought and creativity.
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Marcel Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase

4. Background to Modernism : The Age of Discovery,
Renaissance, Enlightenment and the Scientific Revolution
Moveable-type press
• encouraged widespread literacy and
• an ever-greater emphasis on the individual
• translations of the Bible in national languages
Reformation
• Counter-Reformation
• Humanism and the scientific method (The Enlightenment).
The Renaissance
• reintroduced the observational method of the Ancient Greeks
• valorised the democratic system born in Athens
• human and individual rights, utopian ideals and new social
theories flourished.
New technologies and new understandings of the fundamental
laws of nature led to new industries and new wealth.
Global exploration opened up new parts of the world
• new materials
• new markets
• new classes appeared
• mercantile and innovative middle classes
Woodcut by Ambrosius Holbein for a
1518 edition of Utopia by Thomas
Moore. The traveler Raphael Hythloday
is depicted in the lower left-hand corner
describing to a listener the island of
Utopia, whose layout is schematically
shown above him.

5. Social change
The old European social structures could not survive the onslaught of
religious turmoil, an increasingly demanding and powerful non-aristocracy
and rapidly changing demographics. The Age of Exploration had opened up
new resources and new markets for the burgeoning European economies.
Social struggles such as the 30 Year War tore countries apart and nations
fought amongst themselves – jockeying for position in Europe and for the
lion’s share of the spoils as they carved up the New World, and later much of
the Pacific and Asia, into colonies and ‘protectorates.’
Defeat of the Spanish Armada, 1588-08-08 by
Philippe-Jacques de Loutherbourg, painted 1796,
depicts the battle of Gravelines.

6. The Industrial Revolution (18th
-19thC) – money changes everything.
Despite the turmoil, in the long term
European populations benefited from the
flood of new goods, materials and money
that poured into Europe. Peasants left
their fields and poured into cities, which
grew rapidly and chaotically. Traditional
family and community structures were
shattered and a new kind of class, the
urban working class, developed;
unshackled and unsheltered by the feudal
structures of the past.
New mass-production factories, full of
machinery operated by women and
children working for near starvation-
wages, destroyed skilled artisans’
livelihoods. But new technology and new
methods of production also created new
opportunities and encouraged the growth
of universal education. Innovation bred
innovation, and science and technology
became the pastime of the day for people
of all classes.

7. Advances in knowledge,
particularly in the natural and
geological sciences, undermined a
literal belief in the Bible and a new
age of practical secularism began.
As the aristocracy became ever
more peripheral, destroyed by
their own traditions and privileges,
democracy began to spread and
the middle-classes became ever
more powerful.
Progress and human endeavor
began to replace ‘God’s Will’ as the
driver of society.
Secularism
For an interesting essay and pics about the evolution
of the evolution cartoon:
http://www.howlandbolton.com/essays/read_more.php?sid=331

8. Having more…wanting it all: The birth of consumerism
Mechanisation made everyone richer (eventually)
and everything cheaper, but the Industrial
Revolution would not be so called if it had not
fundamentally changed society. In the Middle
Ages, Sumptuary Laws had made sure that
everyone knew their place in society. Only
Nobles, for example, were allowed to wear
luxurious materials and colours. The high volume
cheap production that new machines such as the
Spinning Jenny and power-loom made possible
needed new markets to be profitable. Now
anyone could dress like the rich – or certainly a
lot more colourfully than they’d previously been
able to.
Consumerism was born and with it a new interest
in aesthetics. Everyone wanted nice things.
The advertising and fashion industries had their
modern beginnings at this point.

9. Modernism and art
New money changed the
art world too. Increasingly
artists produced for
secular and middle-class
buyers whilst the old
model of religious and
aristocratic patronage
disappeared. Art’s subjects
changed with the change
of audience. Once valued
primarily as spiritual or
imperial statement, art
had to find new uses, new
markets and new
meanings.

10. Modern? Art
Until recently, the word "modern" used to
refer generically to the contemporaneous; all
art was modern at the time it was made.
For example: In 1437, Cennino Cennini wrote
in his ‘Il Libro dell'Arte’ (translated as "The
Craftsman's Handbook"), that Giotto made
painting "modern”. Giorgio Vasari (Lives of
the Artists), writing in 16th-century Italy,
referred to the art of his own period as
"modern."
Today, however, what we mean when we talk
about ’Modern/ist Art’ is the art historical
term. Art historically, "Modernism" refers to a
period from, roughly, the 1860s through to
the 1970s and is used to describe the style
and the ideology of art produced during that
era. This is one of the reasons that art made
since 1970 is generally called ‘contemporary’
no matter what theory it might individually
espouse. No art has been ‘modern’ since the
80s.
The Raising of Lazarus, fresco, Arena Chapel,
Padua, 1303-6
THIS WAS MODERN ART

11. Damien Hirst «Beagle 2» Dot Painting 2005.
http://www.orbit.zkm.de/?q=node/63
THIS IS NOT MODERN ART.
THIS IS CONTEMPORARY ART.
Sonia Delaunay
Fabric No. I
c1928 Paris
THIS IS MODERN ART.

12. Modernism = Formalism?
Modernism has been couched
largely in formal terms. Art
historians speak of modern art as
concerned primarily with
essential qualities of colour and
flatness and as exhibiting over
time a reduction of interest in
subject matter (i.e a tendency
towards abstraction, minimalism
and conceptualism). Many now
argue that this concentration on
the formal innovations and
particular aesthetics introduced
by Modernism was an attempt to
ignore and devalue the very real
social agendas of many of the
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Robert Motherwell. At Five in the Afternoon. 1949.

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Who's Afraid of Red, Yellow and Blue IV 1969-70 Barnett Newman

14. American Nationalism promoted Modernism
Modernism reached its apotheosis in the ‘50s
and ‘60s, by which time it was most strongly
associated with the USA and its values.
American Modernist art was abstract art and
was heavily promoted internationally by the US
Government to assert its own cultural
hegemony globally.
Its most fervent and, perhaps, last major
theorist was Clement Greenberg.
“Modernism includes more than art and
literature. By now it covers almost the
whole of what is truly alive in our culture”
Clement Greenberg ‘Modernist Painting’
http://www.sharecom.ca/greenberg/mode
rnism.html
Mark Rothko
Red, Orange, Tan and Purple, 1954
Oil on canvas
84 1/2 x 68 1/2 inches (214.5 x 174 cm)
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15. Ingredients of Modernism: Romanticism
The first half of the 19th century for
Europe was marked by a series of
turbulent wars and revolutions,
which fostered a series of ideas and
doctrines now identified as
Romanticism, which focused on
individual subjective experience,
the supremacy of ‘Nature’ and ‘the
sublime’ as the standard subject for
art, revolutionary or radical
extensions of expression, and
individual liberty.
‘Wanderer above the sea of fog’ by Caspar David Friedrich

16. In search of stimulation…
Romanticism exalted
individualism, subjectivism,
irrationalism, imagination,
emotions and nature - emotion
over reason and senses over
intellect. Since they were in revolt
against the Academy, they
favoured the deployment of
potentially unlimited number of
styles (anything that aroused
them).
Francisco Goya - Saturn Eating Cronus
(One of the Black Paintings)

17. The movement basically started as a reaction to the political turmoil of the times,
but it was fertilized by the influx of foreign art coming from Canada, Asia and
around the world.
Some big names during the period are:
• William Blake
• Henry Fuseli
• Francisco de Goya
• Friedrich Overbeck
• Eugene Delacroix
• William Turner
• John Constable
Eugene Delacroix - Liberty Leading the People, 28th July, 1830

18. William Blake
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19. More about Romanticism
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism
Romanticism - Art History Archive
http://www.arthistoryarchive.
com/arthistory/romanticism/arthistory_romanticism
.html
The 18th and 19th Centuries
http://www.all-art.org/history372.html
Left: The Mandrake A Charm - c1785 Fuseli
Above: Henry Fuseli - The Nightmare II – 1790

20. L'art pour l'art'
“Art should be independent of all claptrap —should
stand alone [...] and appeal to the artistic sense of eye
or ear, without confounding this with emotions entirely
foreign to it, as devotion, pity, love, patriotism and the
like“ James Whistler
Young artists increasingly made a virtue of their
exclusion from the Salons of the Academies. Some,
most wittily, James Whistler, championed the notion
of ‘Art for Art’s Sake’ – and insisted that the unique
elements of art itself were the proper subject for
artists. Hence, rather than simple title his famous
painting of his mother with a descriptive title (‘Mother’
for example), he entitled it ‘Arrangement in Grey and
Black’ – insisting that it was the compositional and
tonal effects that were the content of the painting.
Whistler professed to be perplexed and annoyed by
the insistence of others upon viewing his work as a
"portrait." In his 1890 book, ‘The Gentle Art of Making
Enemies’, he writes:
“Take the picture of my mother, exhibited at the Royal
Academy as an "Arrangement in Grey and Black." Now
that is what it is. To me it is interesting as a picture of
my mother; but what can or ought the public to care
about the identity of the portrait?”
James McNeill Whistler, 1871
Oil on canvas
144.3 × 162.4 cm, 56.8 × 63.9 in
Musee d'Orsay, Paris
More about Whistler
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_McNeill_Whistler

21. Realism – just looking
Parallel to the activities of aesthetes like
Whistler were the activities of the
Realists. Taking their cue from the vibrant
genre and symbolic but exquisitely
precise still-life painting of 16th
and 17th
Dutch art painting and from the
observational informality of English
painter Constable’s rural painting, a group
of French artists formed what became
known as the Barbizon School after the
village they first gathered.
They sought to draw inspiration directly
from nature. Natural scenes became the
subjects of their paintings rather than
mere backdrops to dramatic events. One
of them, Jean-Franois Millet, extended the
idea from landscape to figures — peasant
figures, scenes of peasant life, and work
in the fields.
In The Gleaners (1857), Millet portrays
three peasant women working at the
harvest. There is no drama and no story
told, merely three peasant women in a
field.
The Gleaners. Jean-Franois Millet. 1857.
Musee d'Orsay, Paris.

22. Pre-Raphaelites: Old-school Realists
The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was a group of
English painters, poets and critics, founded in 1848
by John Everett Millais, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and
William Holman Hunt. They wanted an art of spiritual
realism and opposed the materialism of their time.
They thought Art had lost its way, had become false,
formulaic and decadent. And they knew who to
blame – Raphael. It was all his fault, what with his
smooth Classical illusions and charmingly elegant
compositions. They would look at nothing that came
after him, instead basing their work on the ‘true’
earlier artists (hence pre-Raphaelite).
They also strongly objected to the influence of Sir
Joshua Reynolds, the founder of the English Royal
Academy of Arts. They called him "Sir Sloshua",
believing that his broad technique was a sloppy and
formulaic form of academic Mannerism. In contrast
they wanted to return to the abundant detail, intense
colours, and complex compositions of Quattrocento
Italian and Flemish art.
Persephone, by Dante Gabriel Rossetti.

23. The Pre-Raphaelites emphasised the
personal responsibility of individual artists
to determine their own ideas and method
of depiction. Influenced by Romanticism,
they thought that freedom and
responsibility were inseparable.
Paradoxically, they were particularly
fascinated by Medieval culture. They
believed it had a spiritual and creative
integrity lost in later eras. This emphasis
on medieval culture was to clash with the
realism promoted by their stress on
independent observation of nature.
In its early years, the Pre-Raphaelites
believed that the two interests were
consistent with one another, but in later
years the movement divided in two
directions.
The realist side was led by Hunt and
Millais, while the medievalist side was led
by Rossetti and his followers, Edward
Burne-Jones and William Morris. This split
was never absolute, since both factions
believed that art was essentially spiritual
in character, opposing their idealism to
the materialist realism associated with
Courbet.
Hylas and the Nymphs: John William Waterhouse, 1896
Burne-Jones
The Arming of Perseus
(unfinished), 1885,

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26. Synthesis
These dual movements; one
emphasising aesthetics, the other
insisting on close attention to
nature and observation, came
together in the Impressionists.
Another major influence was Japanese
art prints (Japonism), which had
originally come into France as wrapping
paper for imported goods. The art of
these prints contributed significantly to
the "snapshot" angles and
unconventional compositions which
would become characteristic of the
movement.
View of Mount Fuji from Satta Point in the
Suruga Bay, woodcut by Hiroshige,
published posthumously 1859.

27. Impressionism : seeing with light
Impressionism initially focused on work done, not in
studios, but outdoors (en plein air), from nature. We have
seen how interest in light and optics exploded at the
beginning of the 19thC, leading to the development of
new optical technologies such as photography and
animation, and to new understanding of the mechanisms
of human sensation. The Impressionists, using these new
understandings, argued that human beings do not see
objects, but instead see light itself.
Characteristics of Impressionist painting include visible
brushstrokes, open composition, emphasis on light in its
changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the
passage of time), ordinary subject matter, the inclusion of
movement as a crucial element of human perception and
experience, and unusual visual angles.
The Impressionists relaxed the boundary between subject
and background so that the effect of an Impressionist
painting often resembles a snapshot, a part of a larger
reality captured as if by chance. Photography was gaining
popularity, and as cameras became more portable,
photographs became more candid. Photography inspired
Impressionists to capture the moment, not only in the
fleeting lights of a landscape, but in the day-to-day lives
of people.
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Degas, Ballet Dancers on Stage.

28. Impressionism triumphant…
The public, at first hostile, gradually came to
believe that the Impressionists had captured a
fresh and original vision, even if it did not receive
the approval of the art critics and establishment.
Impressionism is now the most generally popular
art movement ever.
By recreating the sensation in the eye that views
the subject, rather than recreating the subject,
and by creating a welter of techniques and forms,
Impressionism became seminal to various
movements in painting which would follow,
including Neo-Impressionism, Post-Impressionism,
Fauvism, and Cubism.
Initially rejected from the most important
commercial show of the time — the government
sponsored Paris Salon — the art was shown at the
Salon des Refusee, created by Emperor Napoleon
III to display all of the paintings rejected by the
Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles,
but by inferior artists, the work of Manet attracted
tremendous attention, and opened commercial
doors to the movement.
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Pierre-Auguste Renoir
Two Sisters (On the Terrace), 1881

29. Manet
Edouard Manet is generally considered the
first modernist painter. Paintings such as his
shocking ‘Le Dejeuner sur l'herbe’ are seen to
have ushered in Modernism.
Edouard Manet, Le Dejeuner sur l'herbe, 18633
Oil on canvas (Musee d'Orsay, Paris)

30. When Le Dejeuner sur l'herbe was exhibited at the Salon des Refusee in 1863 a
lot of people were scandalized. When his painting of Olympia was exhibited the
public were even more upset.
Night Art
picnic with nude from Manet
http://www.youtube.com/wa
tch?v=1OX9PhquTWE
For more of Manet’s paintings:
Manet
http://www.youtube.com/watch
?v=rQiD8Wfl7lk
Edouard Manet, Olympia, 1863
Oil on canvas (Musee d'Orsay, Paris)

31. Other Important Impressionists: Paul
Cezanne Cezanne was one of the major predecessors of
the Cubists and other 20thC art movements. He
believed that all reality was built on simple
‘primitive’ shapes. He was interested in the
simplification of naturally occurring forms to
their geometric essentials, he wanted to "treat
nature by the cylinder, the sphere, the cone" (a
tree trunk may be conceived of as a cylinder, a
human head a sphere, for example).
Additionally, the concentrated attention with
which he recorded his observations of nature
resulted in a profound exploration of binocular
vision, which results in two slightly different
simultaneous visual perceptions, and provides
us with depth perception and a complex
knowledge of spatial relationships. We see two
different views simultaneously; Cezanne
employed this aspect of visual perception in his
painting to varying degrees. The observation of
this fact, coupled with Cezanne’s desire to
capture the truth of his own perception, often
compelled him to render the outlines of forms
so as to at once attempt to display the distinctly
different views of both the left and right eyes.
Thus Cezanne‘s work augments and transforms
earlier ideals of perspective, in particular single-
point perspective.
Corner of Quarry, 1900-02
More at:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne

32. Claude Monet
The most prolific of the Impressionists and the one who most clearly embodies their
aesthetic
In 1872 he painted
Impression, Sunrise
(Impression: soleil levant)
depicting a Le Havre
landscape. It hung in the
first Impressionist exhibition
in 1874 and is now
displayed in the Mus
Marmottan-Monet, Paris.
From the painting's title, art
critic Louis Leroy coined the
term "Impressionism",
which he intended to be
derogatory, however the
Impressionists appropriated
the term for themselves.
Art of Monet
http://www.youtube.com/w
atch?v=FPlW1H9m4dc

33. Mary Cassatt
An american-born artist who lived in Paris and
participated in four Impressionist exhibitions. As
well as practicing the Impressionist aesthetic,
Cassatt was important because of her subject
matter; the social and private lives of women,
with particular emphasis on the intimate bonds
between mothers and children.
The Child's Bath (The Bath), Mary Cassatt,
(1893), oil on canvas, Art Institute of Chicago

34. Others Impressionists:
•Edgar Degas (a realist who despised the term Impressionist, but
is considered one, due to his loyalty to the group)
•Armand Guillaumin
•Berthe Morisot
•Camille Pissarro
•Pierre-Auguste Renoir
•Alfred Sisley
Absinthe, 1876, oil on canvas, by Edgar Degas

35. Symbolism
The second great 19thC school was
Symbolism, a literary and art movement
that originated in Belgium and France.
Symbolism was largely a reaction against
Naturalism and Realism, movements which
attempted to objectively capture reality.
Spurred on by the increasing
mechanisation of the environment, some
opted in favour of spirituality, the
imagination, and dreams.
Symbolism was marked by a belief that
language is expressly symbolic in its
nature, and that poetry and writing should
follow whichever connection the sheer
sound and texture of the words create.
The Symbolist movement in literature has
its roots in Les Fleurs du mal (The Flowers
of Evil) by Charles Baudelaire. The
aesthetic was developed by Stephane
Mallarme and Paul Verlaine during the
1860s and '70s. During the 1880s, the
aesthetic was articulated through a series
of manifestoes and attracted a generation
of writers and artists.
You'd Stick the World into Your Bedside Lane
You'd stick the world into your bedside lane.
It's boredom makes you callous to all pain.
To exercise your teeth for this strange task,
A heart upon a rake, each day, you'd ask.
Your eyes lit up like shopfronts, or the trees
With lanterns on the night of public sprees,
Make insolent misuse of borrowed power
And scorn the law of beauty that's their dower.
Oh deaf-and-dumb machine, harm-breeding fool
World sucking leech, yet salutary tool!
Have you not seen your beauties blanch to pass
Before their own reflection in the glass?
Before this pain, in which you think you're wise,
Does not its greatness shock you with surprise,
To think that Nature, deep in projects hidden,
Has chosen you, vile creature of the midden,
To knead a genius for succeeding time.
O sordid grandeur! Infamy sublime!
Trans. Roy Campbell, Poems of Baudelaire (New York:
Pantheon Books, 1952)
Charles Baudelaire (1821 - 1867) and Les Fleurs du
mal (Flowers of Evil).
http://fleursdumal.org/

36. Symbolist Art
Symbolism was a continuation of some mystical tendencies in the Romantic tradition,
which included such artists as Caspar David Friedrich, Fernand Khnopff and John Henry
Fuseli and it was even more closely aligned with the self-consciously dark and private
Decadent Movement.
Fernand Khnopff's The Caress, 1887

37. Symbolist painting
The Symbolist painters mined mythology
and dream imagery for a visual language
of the soul, seeking evocative paintings
that brought to mind a static world of
silence. The symbols used in Symbolism
are not the familiar emblems of
mainstream iconography but intensely
personal, private, obscure and ambiguous
references.
More a philosophy than an actual style of
art, the Symbolist painters influenced the
contemporary Art Nouveau movement
and Les Nabis.
In the 20thC, the Symbolists were
important influences on the Surrealists
and Dadaists, whilst their influence can be
felt today in artists such as Hirst and
Barney, but also in popular culture,
particularly horror and fantasy genre
books, films and games.
Gustave Moreau (1826-1898)
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38. Symbolist Art
There were several, rather dissimilar, groups of
Symbolist painters and visual artists, among
whom Gustave Moreau, Gustav Klimt, Odilon
Redon, Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, Henri Fantin-
Latour, Edvard Munch, Felicien Rops, and Jan
Toorop were numbered.
Symbolism in painting had an even larger
geographical reach than Symbolism in poetry,
reaching Mikhail Vrubel, Nicholas Roerich, Victor
Borisov-Musatov, Martiros Saryan, Mikhail
Nesterov, Leon Bakst in Russia, as well as Frida
Kahlo in Mexico, Elihu Vedder, Remedios Varo,
Morris Graves, David Chetlahe Paladin, and Elle
Nicolai in the United States. Auguste Rodin is
sometimes considered a Symbolist in sculpture.
Redon, Odilon
The Smiling Spider
1881

39. Gustav Klimt
Austrian Symbolist painter and
one of the most prominent
members of the Vienna Art
Nouveau (Vienna Secession)
movement. His major works
include paintings, murals,
sketches and other art objects,
many of which are on display in
the Vienna Secession gallery.
Klimt's primary subject was the
female body, and his works are
marked by a frank eroticism -
nowhere is this more apparent
than in his numerous drawings
in pencil. These female
subjects, whether formal
portraits or indolent nudes,
invariably display a highly
sensitized fin de siecle
elegance.
A section of the Beethoven Frieze

40. Gustave Moreau
(1826 –1898) French Symbolist painter whose
main focus was the illustration of biblical and
mythological figures.
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41. Edvard Munch
(1863 –1944) Norwegian
Symbolist painter, printmaker, and
an important forerunner of
Expressionistic art.
His best-known painting, The
Scream (1893), is one of the
pieces in a series titled The Frieze
of Life, in which Munch explored
the themes of life, love, fear,
death, and melancholy.

42. Odilon Redon
Odilon Redon, a native of Bordeaux, produced a rich
and enigmatic corpus: 'Like music', he declared, 'my
drawings transport us to the ambiguous world of the
indeterminate.’
In contrast with Goya's monsters and Kubin's
nightmare visions, his work is imbued with a
melancholy passivity. While origins of this disposition
must be sought in the artist's experience, the overall
effect is entirely consistent with the moods of
Symbolism ... : nocturnal, autumnal, and lunar rather
than solar.
His mature production began around 1875 when
Redon entered the shadowy world of charcoal and the
lithographer's stone. This period yielded sequences
such as [Guardian Spirit of the Waters (1878)] and
[Cactus Man (1881)]. Redon made it clear that they
had been inspired by his dreams, and they inspire in
the spectator a conviction like that of dreams.
Redon's art was always commanded by his dreams,
but the thematic content of his work over his last
twenty years is more densely mythical, brimming with
newfound hope and light which rose quite
unexpectedly out of the depths of the artist's
personality.
Guardian Spirit of the Waters, 1878, by Odilon Redon

43. Jan Toorop
(1858 -- 1928) was a Dutch painter whose works straddle the space between the
Symbolist painters and Art Nouveau.

45. Resources
Modernism, Christopher L. C. E. Witcombe
http://witcombe.sbc.edu/modernism/roots.html
Arts: Art History: Periods and Movements: Modernism
http://www.dmoz.org/Arts/Art_History/Periods_and_Movements/Modernism/
Modernism and the Arts in the 20th Century: Links
http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/fnart/HP/20th_mod.html
MIA Modernism (Overview of design movements)
http://www.artsmia.org/modernism/
Modernism: designing a new world 1914-1939 (V&A exhibition
http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/1331_modernism/flash.html