Writing research report

SYED MD. SAJJAD KABIRSYED MD. SAJJAD KABIR UNIVERSITY OF CHITTAGONGUNIVERSITY OF CHITTAGONG

 What is Research Report?What is Research Report?
 Types of ReportTypes of Report
 Components of a Research ReportComponents of a Research Report
 APA Style EssentialsAPA Style Essentials
 Citing and Referencing SourcesCiting and Referencing Sources
 FootnotesFootnotes
 Suggestions for Writing Report.Suggestions for Writing Report.
All Disciplines. Book Zone Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8, Chittagong-4203, Bangladesh. smskabir218@gmail.com; smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bdAll Disciplines. Book Zone Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8, Chittagong-4203, Bangladesh. smskabir218@gmail.com; smskabir@psy.jnu.ac.bd

? It is a systematic write up on the findings of the studyIt is a systematic write up on the findings of the study
including methodologies, discussion, conclusions etc.including methodologies, discussion, conclusions etc.
following a definite style.following a definite style.
? Should remember the saying “Try to express, not toShould remember the saying “Try to express, not to
impress”.impress”.
? It is systematic write up on the findings of a researchIt is systematic write up on the findings of a research
study including an abstract/executive summary/summary,study including an abstract/executive summary/summary,
introduction (Background with literature review,introduction (Background with literature review,
justification, objectives etc) methodology/materials andjustification, objectives etc) methodology/materials and
methods (including statistical design, if any), results andmethods (including statistical design, if any), results and
discussion, conclusions and recommendations, referencesdiscussion, conclusions and recommendations, references
etc. following a definite style or format.etc. following a definite style or format.
3

General types of reports are -General types of reports are -
InformationalInformational
• Inform or instruct – present information.Inform or instruct – present information.
• Details of events, activities or conditions.Details of events, activities or conditions.
• No analysis of the situation, no conclusion, noNo analysis of the situation, no conclusion, no
recommendations.recommendations.
AnalyticalAnalytical
• Written to solve problems.Written to solve problems.
• Information is analyzed.Information is analyzed.
• Conclusions are drawn and recommendations are made.Conclusions are drawn and recommendations are made.
PersuasivePersuasive
• An extension of analytical reports: main focus is to sellAn extension of analytical reports: main focus is to sell
an idea, a service, or product.an idea, a service, or product.
• Proposals are the most common type.Proposals are the most common type.
Types of ReportTypes of Report
4

Some other types of reports are –Some other types of reports are –
 Incident Report:Incident Report: how close you are to completinghow close you are to completing
something you planned.something you planned.
 Accident Report:Accident Report: how many goods or services were sold,how many goods or services were sold,
and the reasons for any differences from the plan.and the reasons for any differences from the plan.
 Sales Report:Sales Report: what has happened in a place, and howwhat has happened in a place, and how
close your organization is to finishing construction.close your organization is to finishing construction.
 Progress Report:Progress Report: an academic report on how and whyan academic report on how and why
something has changed over time.something has changed over time.
 Feasibility Study/ Report:Feasibility Study/ Report: describing something that hasdescribing something that has
happened.happened.
 Recommendation Report:Recommendation Report: how practical a proposal is.how practical a proposal is.
 Site:Site: what your organization should do.what your organization should do.
 Case Study:Case Study: how someone was hurt or something washow someone was hurt or something was
damaged.damaged.
5

 Periodic Operating Reports:Periodic Operating Reports: to monitor and controlto monitor and control
production, sales, shipping, service, etc.production, sales, shipping, service, etc.?
 Situational Report:Situational Report: to describe one-time events, such asto describe one-time events, such as
trips, conferences, and seminars.trips, conferences, and seminars.?
 Investigative/Informational:Investigative/Informational: to examine problems andto examine problems and
supply facts – with little analysis.supply facts – with little analysis.?
 Compliance:Compliance: to respond to government agencies and laws.to respond to government agencies and laws.?
 Justification/Recommendation:Justification/Recommendation: To make recommendationsTo make recommendations
to management and become tools to solve problems andto management and become tools to solve problems and
make decisions.make decisions.?
 Yardstick:Yardstick: To establish criteria and evaluate alternativesTo establish criteria and evaluate alternatives
by measuring against the “yardstick” criteria.by measuring against the “yardstick” criteria.?
 Research Studies:Research Studies: To study problems scientifically byTo study problems scientifically by
analyzing a problem, developing hypotheses, collectinganalyzing a problem, developing hypotheses, collecting
data, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.data, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.
6

BeginningBeginning
MaterialMaterial
i.e. title page, abstract, key word list, table ofi.e. title page, abstract, key word list, table of
contents, list of figures and tables,contents, list of figures and tables,
acknowledgementsacknowledgements
Chapter 1Chapter 1 Introduction – statement of the problem,Introduction – statement of the problem,
hypotheses, why it is important, objectives ofhypotheses, why it is important, objectives of
the work, scope of the workthe work, scope of the work
Chapter 2Chapter 2 Background and Literature Review – discussBackground and Literature Review – discuss
related work and indicate how it relates torelated work and indicate how it relates to
reportreport
Chapter 3Chapter 3 Procedure – describe the procedure used inProcedure – describe the procedure used in
project, data used, and how it was obtainedproject, data used, and how it was obtained
Chapter 4Chapter 4 Results – indicate what happened and interpretResults – indicate what happened and interpret
what it meanswhat it means
Chapter 5Chapter 5 Conclusions and Recommendations – summarizeConclusions and Recommendations – summarize
conclusions and what they mean (i.e., answer theconclusions and what they mean (i.e., answer the
question, “So what?”). What changes and furtherquestion, “So what?”). What changes and further
work do you recommend?work do you recommend?
Components of a Research ReportComponents of a Research Report
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ComponentsofaResearchReportComponentsofaResearchReport TITLE
 It is centered at the top of the page and onlyIt is centered at the top of the page and only
important words are capitalized. It includes aimportant words are capitalized. It includes a
very brief statement of the main variablesvery brief statement of the main variables
(independent and dependent) in the study.(independent and dependent) in the study.
 Make the title specific enough to describe theMake the title specific enough to describe the
contents of the paper, but not so technical thatcontents of the paper, but not so technical that
only specialists will understand.only specialists will understand.
 The title usually describes the subject matter ofThe title usually describes the subject matter of
the article.the article.
 Titles with colons are currently in vogue.Titles with colons are currently in vogue.
 It allows the reader the most succinct summaryIt allows the reader the most succinct summary
of the main “players” in the experiment and theof the main “players” in the experiment and the
character of their relationship to each other.character of their relationship to each other.
 It is centered at the top of the page and onlyIt is centered at the top of the page and only
important words are capitalized. It includes aimportant words are capitalized. It includes a
very brief statement of the main variablesvery brief statement of the main variables
(independent and dependent) in the study.(independent and dependent) in the study.
 Make the title specific enough to describe theMake the title specific enough to describe the
contents of the paper, but not so technical thatcontents of the paper, but not so technical that
only specialists will understand.only specialists will understand.
 The title usually describes the subject matter ofThe title usually describes the subject matter of
the article.the article.
 Titles with colons are currently in vogue.Titles with colons are currently in vogue.
 It allows the reader the most succinct summaryIt allows the reader the most succinct summary
of the main “players” in the experiment and theof the main “players” in the experiment and the
character of their relationship to each other.character of their relationship to each other.
8

ComponentsofaResearchReportComponentsofaResearchReport AUTHORSAUTHORS
 Author’s name is centered below theAuthor’s name is centered below the
title along with the name of thetitle along with the name of the
university or research institution.university or research institution.
 Person who did the work and wrote thePerson who did the work and wrote the
paper is generally listed as the firstpaper is generally listed as the first
author of a research paper.author of a research paper.
 For published articles, other peopleFor published articles, other people
who made substantial contributions towho made substantial contributions to
the work are also listed as authors.the work are also listed as authors.
 Ask your mentor's permission beforeAsk your mentor's permission before
including his/her name as co-author.including his/her name as co-author.
 Author’s name is centered below theAuthor’s name is centered below the
title along with the name of thetitle along with the name of the
university or research institution.university or research institution.
 Person who did the work and wrote thePerson who did the work and wrote the
paper is generally listed as the firstpaper is generally listed as the first
author of a research paper.author of a research paper.
 For published articles, other peopleFor published articles, other people
who made substantial contributions towho made substantial contributions to
the work are also listed as authors.the work are also listed as authors.
 Ask your mentor's permission beforeAsk your mentor's permission before
including his/her name as co-author.including his/her name as co-author.
9

ComponentsofaResearchReportComponentsofaResearchReport ABSTRACTABSTRACT
 Give the reader a “preview” of what’s to come. This is usedGive the reader a “preview” of what’s to come. This is used
to determine whether or not the paper is interestingto determine whether or not the paper is interesting
enough to read, so it should be clear, concise andenough to read, so it should be clear, concise and
complete.complete.
 It should be one paragraph, of 100-250 words, whichIt should be one paragraph, of 100-250 words, which
summarizes the purpose, methods, results and conclusionssummarizes the purpose, methods, results and conclusions
of the paper.of the paper.
 It includes a statement of the manipulations of theIt includes a statement of the manipulations of the
independent variables and a precise of the results of theindependent variables and a precise of the results of the
research. Do not include review of the literature orresearch. Do not include review of the literature or
theoretical background, but leave these for thetheoretical background, but leave these for the
Introduction and Discussion.Introduction and Discussion.
 It is easiest to write the abstract after the paper itself isIt is easiest to write the abstract after the paper itself is
written. A rough rule of thumb is to write an introductorywritten. A rough rule of thumb is to write an introductory
sentence, then one sentence per chapter of your reportsentence, then one sentence per chapter of your report
and a few sentences summarizing your most importantand a few sentences summarizing your most important
conclusions/recommendations.conclusions/recommendations.
 Don’t use abbreviations or citations in the abstract.Don’t use abbreviations or citations in the abstract.
 Give the reader a “preview” of what’s to come. This is usedGive the reader a “preview” of what’s to come. This is used
to determine whether or not the paper is interestingto determine whether or not the paper is interesting
enough to read, so it should be clear, concise andenough to read, so it should be clear, concise and
complete.complete.
 It should be one paragraph, of 100-250 words, whichIt should be one paragraph, of 100-250 words, which
summarizes the purpose, methods, results and conclusionssummarizes the purpose, methods, results and conclusions
of the paper.of the paper.
 It includes a statement of the manipulations of theIt includes a statement of the manipulations of the
independent variables and a precise of the results of theindependent variables and a precise of the results of the
research. Do not include review of the literature orresearch. Do not include review of the literature or
theoretical background, but leave these for thetheoretical background, but leave these for the
Introduction and Discussion.Introduction and Discussion.
 It is easiest to write the abstract after the paper itself isIt is easiest to write the abstract after the paper itself is
written. A rough rule of thumb is to write an introductorywritten. A rough rule of thumb is to write an introductory
sentence, then one sentence per chapter of your reportsentence, then one sentence per chapter of your report
and a few sentences summarizing your most importantand a few sentences summarizing your most important
conclusions/recommendations.conclusions/recommendations.
 Don’t use abbreviations or citations in the abstract.Don’t use abbreviations or citations in the abstract.
10

ComponentsofaResearchReportComponentsofaResearchReport ABSTRACTABSTRACT
Content of the ABSTRACT and its order of presentation-Content of the ABSTRACT and its order of presentation-
 Identification the subjectIdentification the subject
population,population,
 Specification of the researchSpecification of the research
design,design,
 Apparatus and data gatheringApparatus and data gathering
procedures,procedures,
 Summary of the results includingSummary of the results including
statistical significance levels,statistical significance levels,
 Report on the inferences made orReport on the inferences made or
comparisons drawn from the results.comparisons drawn from the results.
Content of the ABSTRACT and its order of presentation-Content of the ABSTRACT and its order of presentation-
 Identification the subjectIdentification the subject
population,population,
 Specification of the researchSpecification of the research
design,design,
 Apparatus and data gatheringApparatus and data gathering
procedures,procedures,
 Summary of the results includingSummary of the results including
statistical significance levels,statistical significance levels,
 Report on the inferences made orReport on the inferences made or
comparisons drawn from the results.comparisons drawn from the results.
11

ComponentsofaResearchReportComponentsofaResearchReport INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION
 Centre the word “INTRODUCTION” on theCentre the word “INTRODUCTION” on the
page. It begins on a new page which ispage. It begins on a new page which is
numbered. Put down the title once again asnumbered. Put down the title once again as
on the face page, but do not repeaton the face page, but do not repeat
researcher’s name.researcher’s name.
 Introduction should be able to answer theIntroduction should be able to answer the
following questions, although not in anyfollowing questions, although not in any
depth.depth.
• What is the research about?What is the research about?
• Why is it relevant or important?Why is it relevant or important?
• What are the issues or problems?What are the issues or problems?
• What is the proposed solution or approach?What is the proposed solution or approach?
• What can one expect in the rest of theWhat can one expect in the rest of the
research?research?
 Centre the word “INTRODUCTION” on theCentre the word “INTRODUCTION” on the
page. It begins on a new page which ispage. It begins on a new page which is
numbered. Put down the title once again asnumbered. Put down the title once again as
on the face page, but do not repeaton the face page, but do not repeat
researcher’s name.researcher’s name.
 Introduction should be able to answer theIntroduction should be able to answer the
following questions, although not in anyfollowing questions, although not in any
depth.depth.
• What is the research about?What is the research about?
• Why is it relevant or important?Why is it relevant or important?
• What are the issues or problems?What are the issues or problems?
• What is the proposed solution or approach?What is the proposed solution or approach?
• What can one expect in the rest of theWhat can one expect in the rest of the
research?research?
12

 Concepts and terms are to be defined clearly
as soon as they are introduced and then
used
consistently thereafter.
 Tell the reader what the problem is, what
question you will try to answer, and why it is
important.
 If the problem is a very basic one, state the
problem first and then review what has
already been found out about it. If the
problem is one that grows out of past
literature, review the history of how it
arose. But do not forget to mention the
basic issues behind the research question
that inspired it.
 Concepts and terms are to be defined clearly
as soon as they are introduced and then
used
consistently thereafter.
 Tell the reader what the problem is, what
question you will try to answer, and why it is
important.
 If the problem is a very basic one, state the
problem first and then review what has
already been found out about it. If the
problem is one that grows out of past
literature, review the history of how it
arose. But do not forget to mention the
basic issues behind the research question
that inspired it. 13

 Related work section (Related work section (literature reviewliterature review) is just a) is just a
review of work related to the problem you arereview of work related to the problem you are
attempting to solve.attempting to solve.
 It should identify and evaluate past approachesIt should identify and evaluate past approaches
to the problem. It should also identify similarto the problem. It should also identify similar
solutions that have been applied to othersolutions that have been applied to other
problems not necessarily directly related to theproblems not necessarily directly related to the
one you’re solving.one you’re solving.
 Related work section also can serve to –Related work section also can serve to –
• justify that the problem exists by example andjustify that the problem exists by example and
argument,argument,
• motivate interest in your work bymotivate interest in your work by
demonstrating relevance and importance,demonstrating relevance and importance,
• identify the important issues, andidentify the important issues, and
• provide background to your solution.provide background to your solution.
 Related work section (Related work section (literature reviewliterature review) is just a) is just a
review of work related to the problem you arereview of work related to the problem you are
attempting to solve.attempting to solve.
 It should identify and evaluate past approachesIt should identify and evaluate past approaches
to the problem. It should also identify similarto the problem. It should also identify similar
solutions that have been applied to othersolutions that have been applied to other
problems not necessarily directly related to theproblems not necessarily directly related to the
one you’re solving.one you’re solving.
 Related work section also can serve to –Related work section also can serve to –
• justify that the problem exists by example andjustify that the problem exists by example and
argument,argument,
• motivate interest in your work bymotivate interest in your work by
demonstrating relevance and importance,demonstrating relevance and importance,
• identify the important issues, andidentify the important issues, and
• provide background to your solution.provide background to your solution.
14

 Avoid editorialization, personal opinion and judgmentalAvoid editorialization, personal opinion and judgmental
statements. Stay close to the data, theory, designstatements. Stay close to the data, theory, design
and hypotheses.and hypotheses.
 Hypotheses should never appear to come out ofHypotheses should never appear to come out of
nowhere or to be derived from personal opinion andnowhere or to be derived from personal opinion and
preference.preference.
 HypothesesHypotheses are usually stated formally in the closingare usually stated formally in the closing
paragraph of the introduction. If have more than oneparagraph of the introduction. If have more than one
hypothesis, state them in a logical order using numbers.hypothesis, state them in a logical order using numbers.
 Research may contain more than one independentResearch may contain more than one independent
variables and dependent variables, each hypothesis canvariables and dependent variables, each hypothesis can
contain only one of each type of variable.contain only one of each type of variable.
 To help formulate hypotheses ask yourself the followingTo help formulate hypotheses ask yourself the following
questions -questions -
- What variables am I as the experimenter manipulating?What variables am I as the experimenter manipulating?
(Independent variable)(Independent variable)
-- What results do I expect? (Dependent variable)What results do I expect? (Dependent variable)
-- Why do I expect these results?Why do I expect these results?
 Avoid editorialization, personal opinion and judgmentalAvoid editorialization, personal opinion and judgmental
statements. Stay close to the data, theory, designstatements. Stay close to the data, theory, design
and hypotheses.and hypotheses.
 Hypotheses should never appear to come out ofHypotheses should never appear to come out of
nowhere or to be derived from personal opinion andnowhere or to be derived from personal opinion and
preference.preference.
 HypothesesHypotheses are usually stated formally in the closingare usually stated formally in the closing
paragraph of the introduction. If have more than oneparagraph of the introduction. If have more than one
hypothesis, state them in a logical order using numbers.hypothesis, state them in a logical order using numbers.
 Research may contain more than one independentResearch may contain more than one independent
variables and dependent variables, each hypothesis canvariables and dependent variables, each hypothesis can
contain only one of each type of variable.contain only one of each type of variable.
 To help formulate hypotheses ask yourself the followingTo help formulate hypotheses ask yourself the following
questions -questions -
- What variables am I as the experimenter manipulating?What variables am I as the experimenter manipulating?
(Independent variable)(Independent variable)
-- What results do I expect? (Dependent variable)What results do I expect? (Dependent variable)
-- Why do I expect these results?Why do I expect these results?
15

ComponentsofaResearchReportComponentsofaResearchReport METHODMETHOD
 It can be thought of as the “cookbook”
section of the paper, by reading this
section, one could replicate the study.
 It should be complete, detail and clear
enough to allow another investigator to
understand how the study is conducted.
 Centre the word “METHOD” on the page.
 This section is written in past tense.
 This section is generally easy to write –
simply describe what you did, how you did
it, and when you did it.
 It can be thought of as the “cookbook”
section of the paper, by reading this
section, one could replicate the study.
 It should be complete, detail and clear
enough to allow another investigator to
understand how the study is conducted.
 Centre the word “METHOD” on the page.
 This section is written in past tense.
 This section is generally easy to write –
simply describe what you did, how you did
it, and when you did it.
16

SubjectsSubjects
(a)(a)Who are the subjects?Who are the subjects? Specifies whoSpecifies who
participated in the study. Subjects areparticipated in the study. Subjects are
described according to age, gender and otherdescribed according to age, gender and other
relevant social or demographic considerations.relevant social or demographic considerations.
(b) How many subjects are there?(b) How many subjects are there? State the totalState the total
number of participants and the number assignednumber of participants and the number assigned
to each experimental condition. If any subjectsto each experimental condition. If any subjects
did not complete the study, give the number anddid not complete the study, give the number and
reason.reason.
(c) How the subjects are selected?(c) How the subjects are selected? How theHow the
subjects were selected and how the chosensubjects were selected and how the chosen
subjects were assigned to groups. Was somesubjects were assigned to groups. Was some
sort of randomization technique used or wassort of randomization technique used or was
some other method necessary?some other method necessary?
SubjectsSubjects
(a)(a)Who are the subjects?Who are the subjects? Specifies whoSpecifies who
participated in the study. Subjects areparticipated in the study. Subjects are
described according to age, gender and otherdescribed according to age, gender and other
relevant social or demographic considerations.relevant social or demographic considerations.
(b) How many subjects are there?(b) How many subjects are there? State the totalState the total
number of participants and the number assignednumber of participants and the number assigned
to each experimental condition. If any subjectsto each experimental condition. If any subjects
did not complete the study, give the number anddid not complete the study, give the number and
reason.reason.
(c) How the subjects are selected?(c) How the subjects are selected? How theHow the
subjects were selected and how the chosensubjects were selected and how the chosen
subjects were assigned to groups. Was somesubjects were assigned to groups. Was some
sort of randomization technique used or wassort of randomization technique used or was
some other method necessary?some other method necessary?
17

Apparatus:Apparatus: This subsection (if required) gives aThis subsection (if required) gives a
brief description of the equipment or materialsbrief description of the equipment or materials
used in the study. Standard hardware such as stopused in the study. Standard hardware such as stop
watches need not be described in detail. Rememberwatches need not be described in detail. Remember
the description must be detailed enough so that thethe description must be detailed enough so that the
reader can replicate the study.reader can replicate the study.
Procedure:Procedure: Procedures such as randomization,Procedures such as randomization,
counterbalancing and other control procedures arecounterbalancing and other control procedures are
also detailed. One of the purposes of it is to allowalso detailed. One of the purposes of it is to allow
another experimenter to replicate exactly what youanother experimenter to replicate exactly what you
have done.have done.
Mention relevant ethical considerations. If you usedMention relevant ethical considerations. If you used
human subjects, did they consent to participate? Ifhuman subjects, did they consent to participate? If
you used animals, what measures did you take toyou used animals, what measures did you take to
minimize pain?minimize pain?
Apparatus:Apparatus: This subsection (if required) gives aThis subsection (if required) gives a
brief description of the equipment or materialsbrief description of the equipment or materials
used in the study. Standard hardware such as stopused in the study. Standard hardware such as stop
watches need not be described in detail. Rememberwatches need not be described in detail. Remember
the description must be detailed enough so that thethe description must be detailed enough so that the
reader can replicate the study.reader can replicate the study.
Procedure:Procedure: Procedures such as randomization,Procedures such as randomization,
counterbalancing and other control procedures arecounterbalancing and other control procedures are
also detailed. One of the purposes of it is to allowalso detailed. One of the purposes of it is to allow
another experimenter to replicate exactly what youanother experimenter to replicate exactly what you
have done.have done.
Mention relevant ethical considerations. If you usedMention relevant ethical considerations. If you used
human subjects, did they consent to participate? Ifhuman subjects, did they consent to participate? If
you used animals, what measures did you take toyou used animals, what measures did you take to
minimize pain?minimize pain?
18

ComponentsofaResearchReportComponentsofaResearchReport RESULTSRESULTS
 Centre the word “RESULTS” on the page. Do notCentre the word “RESULTS” on the page. Do not
begin on a new page unless space considerationsbegin on a new page unless space considerations
require it.require it.
 The results section is also written in the past tense.The results section is also written in the past tense.
 This section summarizes the data and the statisticalThis section summarizes the data and the statistical
treatment of them. If the data are relatively simple,treatment of them. If the data are relatively simple,
they may be reported entirely in text without the usethey may be reported entirely in text without the use
of TABLES or FIGURES.of TABLES or FIGURES.
 Summarize the main idea of findings and report themSummarize the main idea of findings and report them
whether or not hypothesis(es) have been confirmed.whether or not hypothesis(es) have been confirmed.
Present the results in the same order as you havePresent the results in the same order as you have
made your predictions (hypotheses) in the introductionmade your predictions (hypotheses) in the introduction
and do so in simple sentences.and do so in simple sentences.
 Do not discuss the implications, interpretations, orDo not discuss the implications, interpretations, or
theoretical significance of results in the this section.theoretical significance of results in the this section.
 Most professors (except nitpickers) prefer the tablesMost professors (except nitpickers) prefer the tables
and figures close to where they are needed.and figures close to where they are needed.
 Centre the word “RESULTS” on the page. Do notCentre the word “RESULTS” on the page. Do not
begin on a new page unless space considerationsbegin on a new page unless space considerations
require it.require it.
 The results section is also written in the past tense.The results section is also written in the past tense.
 This section summarizes the data and the statisticalThis section summarizes the data and the statistical
treatment of them. If the data are relatively simple,treatment of them. If the data are relatively simple,
they may be reported entirely in text without the usethey may be reported entirely in text without the use
of TABLES or FIGURES.of TABLES or FIGURES.
 Summarize the main idea of findings and report themSummarize the main idea of findings and report them
whether or not hypothesis(es) have been confirmed.whether or not hypothesis(es) have been confirmed.
Present the results in the same order as you havePresent the results in the same order as you have
made your predictions (hypotheses) in the introductionmade your predictions (hypotheses) in the introduction
and do so in simple sentences.and do so in simple sentences.
 Do not discuss the implications, interpretations, orDo not discuss the implications, interpretations, or
theoretical significance of results in the this section.theoretical significance of results in the this section.
 Most professors (except nitpickers) prefer the tablesMost professors (except nitpickers) prefer the tables
and figures close to where they are needed.and figures close to where they are needed.
19

ComponentsofaResearchReportComponentsofaResearchReport RESULTSRESULTS
TablesTables
 Tables compress data and allow the reader to seeTables compress data and allow the reader to see
relationships at a glance.relationships at a glance.
 It should not duplicate the text of the results butIt should not duplicate the text of the results but
the text should highlight the data by referring to thethe text should highlight the data by referring to the
table.table.
 The table should be self explanatory as well asThe table should be self explanatory as well as
related to the text.related to the text.
 Always number the tables and refer to those numbersAlways number the tables and refer to those numbers
in the text.in the text.
 Every table is given a brief explanatory title written.Every table is given a brief explanatory title written.
It is placed below the table number and above theIt is placed below the table number and above the
table.table.
 Enough space is used to render the table easilyEnough space is used to render the table easily
readable.readable.
 Notes of sub-headings are employed to explainNotes of sub-headings are employed to explain
abbreviations, parentheses or units of measurement.abbreviations, parentheses or units of measurement.
TablesTables
 Tables compress data and allow the reader to seeTables compress data and allow the reader to see
relationships at a glance.relationships at a glance.
 It should not duplicate the text of the results butIt should not duplicate the text of the results but
the text should highlight the data by referring to thethe text should highlight the data by referring to the
table.table.
 The table should be self explanatory as well asThe table should be self explanatory as well as
related to the text.related to the text.
 Always number the tables and refer to those numbersAlways number the tables and refer to those numbers
in the text.in the text.
 Every table is given a brief explanatory title written.Every table is given a brief explanatory title written.
It is placed below the table number and above theIt is placed below the table number and above the
table.table.
 Enough space is used to render the table easilyEnough space is used to render the table easily
readable.readable.
 Notes of sub-headings are employed to explainNotes of sub-headings are employed to explain
abbreviations, parentheses or units of measurement.abbreviations, parentheses or units of measurement.
20

ComponentsofaResearchReportComponentsofaResearchReport
RESULTSRESULTS
FiguresFigures
 Figures are graphs, charts, and illustrations.Figures are graphs, charts, and illustrations.
Caption is placed below the figure instead ofCaption is placed below the figure instead of
above.above.
 Only the first word of the caption isOnly the first word of the caption is
capitalized.capitalized.
 If there is enough space, you may place it onIf there is enough space, you may place it on
the same page as text, but a separate pagethe same page as text, but a separate page
should otherwise be used, especially forshould otherwise be used, especially for
publishing purposes.publishing purposes.
 Remember to place the dependent variable onRemember to place the dependent variable on
the vertical axis and to follow the rules forthe vertical axis and to follow the rules for
correct calibration of the data.correct calibration of the data.
 Both axes should be clearly labeled, and theBoth axes should be clearly labeled, and the
graph lines too when appropriate.graph lines too when appropriate.
FiguresFigures
 Figures are graphs, charts, and illustrations.Figures are graphs, charts, and illustrations.
Caption is placed below the figure instead ofCaption is placed below the figure instead of
above.above.
 Only the first word of the caption isOnly the first word of the caption is
capitalized.capitalized.
 If there is enough space, you may place it onIf there is enough space, you may place it on
the same page as text, but a separate pagethe same page as text, but a separate page
should otherwise be used, especially forshould otherwise be used, especially for
publishing purposes.publishing purposes.
 Remember to place the dependent variable onRemember to place the dependent variable on
the vertical axis and to follow the rules forthe vertical axis and to follow the rules for
correct calibration of the data.correct calibration of the data.
 Both axes should be clearly labeled, and theBoth axes should be clearly labeled, and the
graph lines too when appropriate.graph lines too when appropriate. 21

ComponentsofaResearchReportComponentsofaResearchReport DISCUSSIONDISCUSSION
 The word “DISCUSSION” is centered. Do not use aThe word “DISCUSSION” is centered. Do not use a
new page unless it is necessary.new page unless it is necessary.
 It is a good idea to begin the discussion with aIt is a good idea to begin the discussion with a
summary of the results.summary of the results.
 This section states the major results (what you haveThis section states the major results (what you have
discovered), and tells the reader what you think theydiscovered), and tells the reader what you think they
mean.mean.
 There is no need in this section to restate the data –There is no need in this section to restate the data –
that is all in the results section.that is all in the results section.
 This section should refer back to those studiesThis section should refer back to those studies
mentioned in introduction. Discuss how your resultsmentioned in introduction. Discuss how your results
are similar to the findings (results) of these studies,are similar to the findings (results) of these studies,
or, if they are different, how they differ. Attemptor, if they are different, how they differ. Attempt
to resolve and deal with these differences byto resolve and deal with these differences by
suggesting reasons for why they might have occurred.suggesting reasons for why they might have occurred.
 The word “DISCUSSION” is centered. Do not use aThe word “DISCUSSION” is centered. Do not use a
new page unless it is necessary.new page unless it is necessary.
 It is a good idea to begin the discussion with aIt is a good idea to begin the discussion with a
summary of the results.summary of the results.
 This section states the major results (what you haveThis section states the major results (what you have
discovered), and tells the reader what you think theydiscovered), and tells the reader what you think they
mean.mean.
 There is no need in this section to restate the data –There is no need in this section to restate the data –
that is all in the results section.that is all in the results section.
 This section should refer back to those studiesThis section should refer back to those studies
mentioned in introduction. Discuss how your resultsmentioned in introduction. Discuss how your results
are similar to the findings (results) of these studies,are similar to the findings (results) of these studies,
or, if they are different, how they differ. Attemptor, if they are different, how they differ. Attempt
to resolve and deal with these differences byto resolve and deal with these differences by
suggesting reasons for why they might have occurred.suggesting reasons for why they might have occurred.
22

DISCUSSIONDISCUSSION
 Suggest ideas for future research experiments inSuggest ideas for future research experiments in
this area. Suggest how to further explore athis area. Suggest how to further explore a
finding you discovered, how to discover why youfinding you discovered, how to discover why you
got different results form other researchers.got different results form other researchers.
 If this section is fairly long, it’s nice to put aIf this section is fairly long, it’s nice to put a
short summary paragraph (of the conclusion,short summary paragraph (of the conclusion,
interpretations, etc.) at the very end to helpinterpretations, etc.) at the very end to help
thethe
reader remember your general conclusions.reader remember your general conclusions.
 This section will make or break your paper - putThis section will make or break your paper - put
a lot of thought into it and try to drawa lot of thought into it and try to draw
sophisticated and accurate conclusions from yoursophisticated and accurate conclusions from your
data.data.
 The section will show your grasp of the inductiveThe section will show your grasp of the inductive
and deductive thinking routines involved inand deductive thinking routines involved in
experimental work.experimental work.
 Suggest ideas for future research experiments inSuggest ideas for future research experiments in
this area. Suggest how to further explore athis area. Suggest how to further explore a
finding you discovered, how to discover why youfinding you discovered, how to discover why you
got different results form other researchers.got different results form other researchers.
 If this section is fairly long, it’s nice to put aIf this section is fairly long, it’s nice to put a
short summary paragraph (of the conclusion,short summary paragraph (of the conclusion,
interpretations, etc.) at the very end to helpinterpretations, etc.) at the very end to help
thethe
reader remember your general conclusions.reader remember your general conclusions.
 This section will make or break your paper - putThis section will make or break your paper - put
a lot of thought into it and try to drawa lot of thought into it and try to draw
sophisticated and accurate conclusions from yoursophisticated and accurate conclusions from your
data.data.
 The section will show your grasp of the inductiveThe section will show your grasp of the inductive
and deductive thinking routines involved inand deductive thinking routines involved in
experimental work.experimental work. 23

DISCUSSIONDISCUSSION
What is expected in this section -What is expected in this section -
• Discuss the results in the context of the research andDiscuss the results in the context of the research and
theory you already brought forward in thetheory you already brought forward in the
introduction. This will unify your work. Avoid personalintroduction. This will unify your work. Avoid personal
opinion and irrelevant or undisciplined speculation.opinion and irrelevant or undisciplined speculation.
• Show awareness of the shortcomings and uncontrolledShow awareness of the shortcomings and uncontrolled
variables in your work and qualify your resultsvariables in your work and qualify your results
accordingly, showing your ability to identify any otheraccordingly, showing your ability to identify any other
explanations for your data that may suggestexplanations for your data that may suggest
themselves.themselves.
• Specify what variables you would control or change inSpecify what variables you would control or change in
future research to correct for the problems in yourfuture research to correct for the problems in your
present study.present study.
• Taking your results at face value, suggest otherTaking your results at face value, suggest other
research avenues for the future.research avenues for the future.
• Briefly draw out any practical implications of theBriefly draw out any practical implications of the
study, if any.study, if any.
What is expected in this section -What is expected in this section -
• Discuss the results in the context of the research andDiscuss the results in the context of the research and
theory you already brought forward in thetheory you already brought forward in the
introduction. This will unify your work. Avoid personalintroduction. This will unify your work. Avoid personal
opinion and irrelevant or undisciplined speculation.opinion and irrelevant or undisciplined speculation.
• Show awareness of the shortcomings and uncontrolledShow awareness of the shortcomings and uncontrolled
variables in your work and qualify your resultsvariables in your work and qualify your results
accordingly, showing your ability to identify any otheraccordingly, showing your ability to identify any other
explanations for your data that may suggestexplanations for your data that may suggest
themselves.themselves.
• Specify what variables you would control or change inSpecify what variables you would control or change in
future research to correct for the problems in yourfuture research to correct for the problems in your
present study.present study.
• Taking your results at face value, suggest otherTaking your results at face value, suggest other
research avenues for the future.research avenues for the future.
• Briefly draw out any practical implications of theBriefly draw out any practical implications of the
study, if any.study, if any. 24

ComponentsofaResearchReportComponentsofaResearchReport REFERENCESREFERENCES This is the last section and it should conform toThis is the last section and it should conform to
APA style.APA style.
 Centre the word “REFERENCES” at the top ofCentre the word “REFERENCES” at the top of
the page, but do NOT underline it or place it inthe page, but do NOT underline it or place it in
quotation marks.quotation marks.
 A reference list cites works that are publiclyA reference list cites works that are publicly
available.available.
 This section is always placed on a separate page,This section is always placed on a separate page,
and the page number is omitted.and the page number is omitted.
 Works cited in the text of your experiment mustWorks cited in the text of your experiment must
appear in the reference list and conversely eachappear in the reference list and conversely each
entry in the reference list must be cited in yourentry in the reference list must be cited in your
text.text.
 Since reference lists are intended for the use ofSince reference lists are intended for the use of
the reader, they must be accurate andthe reader, they must be accurate and
complete.complete.
 This is the last section and it should conform toThis is the last section and it should conform to
APA style.APA style.
 Centre the word “REFERENCES” at the top ofCentre the word “REFERENCES” at the top of
the page, but do NOT underline it or place it inthe page, but do NOT underline it or place it in
quotation marks.quotation marks.
 A reference list cites works that are publiclyA reference list cites works that are publicly
available.available.
 This section is always placed on a separate page,This section is always placed on a separate page,
and the page number is omitted.and the page number is omitted.
 Works cited in the text of your experiment mustWorks cited in the text of your experiment must
appear in the reference list and conversely eachappear in the reference list and conversely each
entry in the reference list must be cited in yourentry in the reference list must be cited in your
text.text.
 Since reference lists are intended for the use ofSince reference lists are intended for the use of
the reader, they must be accurate andthe reader, they must be accurate and
complete.complete. 25

Footnotes:Footnotes: Are rarely used. They may beAre rarely used. They may be
used to acknowledge a research grant orused to acknowledge a research grant or
assistance of others in preparation of aassistance of others in preparation of a
study. Avoid footnotes. This is the time tostudy. Avoid footnotes. This is the time to
use a footnote.use a footnote.
End Notes:End Notes: These are like footnotes but areThese are like footnotes but are
located at the back rather than the bottomlocated at the back rather than the bottom
of each page. These are listed in numericof each page. These are listed in numeric
order as presented in the text.order as presented in the text.
Appendix:Appendix: Any tables, figures, forms, orAny tables, figures, forms, or
other materials that are not totally centralother materials that are not totally central
to the analysis but that need to be includedto the analysis but that need to be included
are placed in the Appendix.are placed in the Appendix.
Footnotes:Footnotes: Are rarely used. They may beAre rarely used. They may be
used to acknowledge a research grant orused to acknowledge a research grant or
assistance of others in preparation of aassistance of others in preparation of a
study. Avoid footnotes. This is the time tostudy. Avoid footnotes. This is the time to
use a footnote.use a footnote.
End Notes:End Notes: These are like footnotes but areThese are like footnotes but are
located at the back rather than the bottomlocated at the back rather than the bottom
of each page. These are listed in numericof each page. These are listed in numeric
order as presented in the text.order as presented in the text.
Appendix:Appendix: Any tables, figures, forms, orAny tables, figures, forms, or
other materials that are not totally centralother materials that are not totally central
to the analysis but that need to be includedto the analysis but that need to be included
are placed in the Appendix.are placed in the Appendix.
26

APA Style EssentialsAPA Style Essentials
TheThe Publication Manual of the AmericanPublication Manual of the American
Psychological AssociationPsychological Association (6th ed., 2014)(6th ed., 2014)
and the APA Style web siteand the APA Style web site
(http://www.apastyle.org/) provide a(http://www.apastyle.org/) provide a
comprehensive reference guide to writingcomprehensive reference guide to writing
using APA style, organization, and content.using APA style, organization, and content.
The purpose of this document is to provideThe purpose of this document is to provide
a common core of elements of APA stylea common core of elements of APA style
that all members of an academic departmentthat all members of an academic department
can adopt as minimal standards for anycan adopt as minimal standards for any
assignment that specifies APA style.assignment that specifies APA style.
TheThe Publication Manual of the AmericanPublication Manual of the American
Psychological AssociationPsychological Association (6th ed., 2014)(6th ed., 2014)
and the APA Style web siteand the APA Style web site
(http://www.apastyle.org/) provide a(http://www.apastyle.org/) provide a
comprehensive reference guide to writingcomprehensive reference guide to writing
using APA style, organization, and content.using APA style, organization, and content.
The purpose of this document is to provideThe purpose of this document is to provide
a common core of elements of APA stylea common core of elements of APA style
that all members of an academic departmentthat all members of an academic department
can adopt as minimal standards for anycan adopt as minimal standards for any
assignment that specifies APA style.assignment that specifies APA style.
27

APAStyleEssentialsAPAStyleEssentials I. General Document GuidelinesI. General Document Guidelines
Margins:Margins: One inch on all sides (top, bottom, left,One inch on all sides (top, bottom, left,
right).right).
Font Size and Type:Font Size and Type: 12-pt. Times New Roman font.12-pt. Times New Roman font.
Line Spacing:Line Spacing: Double-space throughout the paper,Double-space throughout the paper,
including the title page, abstract, body of theincluding the title page, abstract, body of the
document, references, appendixes, footnotes, tables,document, references, appendixes, footnotes, tables,
and figures.and figures.
Spacing after Punctuation:Spacing after Punctuation: Space once after commas,Space once after commas,
colons, and semicolons within sentences. Insert twocolons, and semicolons within sentences. Insert two
spaces after punctuation marks that end sentences.spaces after punctuation marks that end sentences.
Alignment:Alignment: Flush left (creating uneven right margin).Flush left (creating uneven right margin).
Paragraph Indentation:Paragraph Indentation: 5-7 spaces.5-7 spaces.
Margins:Margins: One inch on all sides (top, bottom, left,One inch on all sides (top, bottom, left,
right).right).
Font Size and Type:Font Size and Type: 12-pt. Times New Roman font.12-pt. Times New Roman font.
Line Spacing:Line Spacing: Double-space throughout the paper,Double-space throughout the paper,
including the title page, abstract, body of theincluding the title page, abstract, body of the
document, references, appendixes, footnotes, tables,document, references, appendixes, footnotes, tables,
and figures.and figures.
Spacing after Punctuation:Spacing after Punctuation: Space once after commas,Space once after commas,
colons, and semicolons within sentences. Insert twocolons, and semicolons within sentences. Insert two
spaces after punctuation marks that end sentences.spaces after punctuation marks that end sentences.
Alignment:Alignment: Flush left (creating uneven right margin).Flush left (creating uneven right margin).
Paragraph Indentation:Paragraph Indentation: 5-7 spaces.5-7 spaces.
28

APAStyleEssentialsAPAStyleEssentials I. General Document GuidelinesI. General Document Guidelines
Pagination:Pagination: Page number appears one inch from thePage number appears one inch from the
right edge of the paper on the first line of everyright edge of the paper on the first line of every
page.page.
Running Head:Running Head: It is a short title that appears at theIt is a short title that appears at the
top of the pages of a paper or published article. It istop of the pages of a paper or published article. It is
typed flush left at the top of all pages. It should nottyped flush left at the top of all pages. It should not
exceed 50 characters, including punctuation andexceed 50 characters, including punctuation and
spacing. Using most word processors, the running headspacing. Using most word processors, the running head
and page number can be inserted into a header, whichand page number can be inserted into a header, which
then automatically appears on all pages.then automatically appears on all pages.
Active voice:Active voice: As a general rule, use the active voiceAs a general rule, use the active voice
rather than the passive voice.rather than the passive voice.
Order of Pages:Order of Pages: Title Page, Abstract, Body,Title Page, Abstract, Body,
References, Footnotes, Tables, Figures, Appendixes.References, Footnotes, Tables, Figures, Appendixes.
Pagination:Pagination: Page number appears one inch from thePage number appears one inch from the
right edge of the paper on the first line of everyright edge of the paper on the first line of every
page.page.
Running Head:Running Head: It is a short title that appears at theIt is a short title that appears at the
top of the pages of a paper or published article. It istop of the pages of a paper or published article. It is
typed flush left at the top of all pages. It should nottyped flush left at the top of all pages. It should not
exceed 50 characters, including punctuation andexceed 50 characters, including punctuation and
spacing. Using most word processors, the running headspacing. Using most word processors, the running head
and page number can be inserted into a header, whichand page number can be inserted into a header, which
then automatically appears on all pages.then automatically appears on all pages.
Active voice:Active voice: As a general rule, use the active voiceAs a general rule, use the active voice
rather than the passive voice.rather than the passive voice.
Order of Pages:Order of Pages: Title Page, Abstract, Body,Title Page, Abstract, Body,
References, Footnotes, Tables, Figures, Appendixes.References, Footnotes, Tables, Figures, Appendixes.
29

APAStyleEssentialsAPAStyleEssentials II. Title PageII. Title Page
Pagination:Pagination: The Title Page is page 1.The Title Page is page 1.
Running Head:Running Head: The running head is typed flush left (allThe running head is typed flush left (all
uppercase) following “Running head”.uppercase) following “Running head”.
Key Elements:Key Elements: Paper title, author(s), institutionalPaper title, author(s), institutional
affiliation(s), author note.affiliation(s), author note.
Paper Title:Paper Title: Uppercase and lowercase letters, centeredUppercase and lowercase letters, centered
on the page.on the page.
Author(s):Author(s): Uppercase and lowercase letters, centered onUppercase and lowercase letters, centered on
the line following the title.the line following the title.
Institutional Affiliation:Institutional Affiliation: Uppercase and lowercaseUppercase and lowercase
letters, centered on the line following the author(s).letters, centered on the line following the author(s).
Author Note:Author Note: Provide information about the author’sProvide information about the author’s
departmental affiliation, acknowledgments of assistancedepartmental affiliation, acknowledgments of assistance
or financial support, and a mailing address foror financial support, and a mailing address for
correspondence.correspondence.
Pagination:Pagination: The Title Page is page 1.The Title Page is page 1.
Running Head:Running Head: The running head is typed flush left (allThe running head is typed flush left (all
uppercase) following “Running head”.uppercase) following “Running head”.
Key Elements:Key Elements: Paper title, author(s), institutionalPaper title, author(s), institutional
affiliation(s), author note.affiliation(s), author note.
Paper Title:Paper Title: Uppercase and lowercase letters, centeredUppercase and lowercase letters, centered
on the page.on the page.
Author(s):Author(s): Uppercase and lowercase letters, centered onUppercase and lowercase letters, centered on
the line following the title.the line following the title.
Institutional Affiliation:Institutional Affiliation: Uppercase and lowercaseUppercase and lowercase
letters, centered on the line following the author(s).letters, centered on the line following the author(s).
Author Note:Author Note: Provide information about the author’sProvide information about the author’s
departmental affiliation, acknowledgments of assistancedepartmental affiliation, acknowledgments of assistance
or financial support, and a mailing address foror financial support, and a mailing address for
correspondence.correspondence.
30

APAStyleEssentialsAPAStyleEssentials III. AbstractIII. Abstract
 The abstract is a one-paragraph, self-containedThe abstract is a one-paragraph, self-contained
summary of the most important elements of the paper.summary of the most important elements of the paper.
Pagination:Pagination: The abstract begins on a new pageThe abstract begins on a new page
(page 2).(page 2).
Heading:Heading: “Abstract” (centered on the first line“Abstract” (centered on the first line
below the running head)below the running head)
Format:Format: The abstract (in block format) begins onThe abstract (in block format) begins on
the line following the Abstract heading.the line following the Abstract heading.
 The abstract word limit is set by individualThe abstract word limit is set by individual
journals. Typically, the word limit is between 150journals. Typically, the word limit is between 150
and 250 words.and 250 words.
 All numbers in the abstract (except those beginning aAll numbers in the abstract (except those beginning a
sentence) should be typed as digits rather than words.sentence) should be typed as digits rather than words.
 The abstract is a one-paragraph, self-containedThe abstract is a one-paragraph, self-contained
summary of the most important elements of the paper.summary of the most important elements of the paper.
Pagination:Pagination: The abstract begins on a new pageThe abstract begins on a new page
(page 2).(page 2).
Heading:Heading: “Abstract” (centered on the first line“Abstract” (centered on the first line
below the running head)below the running head)
Format:Format: The abstract (in block format) begins onThe abstract (in block format) begins on
the line following the Abstract heading.the line following the Abstract heading.
 The abstract word limit is set by individualThe abstract word limit is set by individual
journals. Typically, the word limit is between 150journals. Typically, the word limit is between 150
and 250 words.and 250 words.
 All numbers in the abstract (except those beginning aAll numbers in the abstract (except those beginning a
sentence) should be typed as digits rather than words.sentence) should be typed as digits rather than words.
31

APAStyleEssentialsAPAStyleEssentials IV. BodyIV. Body
Pagination:Pagination: The body of the paper begins on a new page (pageThe body of the paper begins on a new page (page
3). Subsections of the body of the paper do not begin on new3). Subsections of the body of the paper do not begin on new
pages.pages.
Title:Title: The title of the paper (in uppercase and lowercaseThe title of the paper (in uppercase and lowercase
letters) is centered on the first line below the running head.letters) is centered on the first line below the running head.
Introduction:Introduction: It begins on the line following the paper title.It begins on the line following the paper title.
Headings:Headings: Five levels of headings are available to be used toFive levels of headings are available to be used to
organize the paper and reflect the relative importance oforganize the paper and reflect the relative importance of
sections.sections.
Many empirical research articles utilize two levels ofMany empirical research articles utilize two levels of
headings: Main headings (such as Method, Results, Discussion,headings: Main headings (such as Method, Results, Discussion,
References) would use Level 1 (centered, boldface, uppercaseReferences) would use Level 1 (centered, boldface, uppercase
and lowercase letters), and subheadings (such as Participants,and lowercase letters), and subheadings (such as Participants,
Apparatus, and Procedure as subsections of the MethodApparatus, and Procedure as subsections of the Method
section) would use Level 2 (flush left, boldface, uppercase andsection) would use Level 2 (flush left, boldface, uppercase and
lowercase letters).lowercase letters).
Pagination:Pagination: The body of the paper begins on a new page (pageThe body of the paper begins on a new page (page
3). Subsections of the body of the paper do not begin on new3). Subsections of the body of the paper do not begin on new
pages.pages.
Title:Title: The title of the paper (in uppercase and lowercaseThe title of the paper (in uppercase and lowercase
letters) is centered on the first line below the running head.letters) is centered on the first line below the running head.
Introduction:Introduction: It begins on the line following the paper title.It begins on the line following the paper title.
Headings:Headings: Five levels of headings are available to be used toFive levels of headings are available to be used to
organize the paper and reflect the relative importance oforganize the paper and reflect the relative importance of
sections.sections.
Many empirical research articles utilize two levels ofMany empirical research articles utilize two levels of
headings: Main headings (such as Method, Results, Discussion,headings: Main headings (such as Method, Results, Discussion,
References) would use Level 1 (centered, boldface, uppercaseReferences) would use Level 1 (centered, boldface, uppercase
and lowercase letters), and subheadings (such as Participants,and lowercase letters), and subheadings (such as Participants,
Apparatus, and Procedure as subsections of the MethodApparatus, and Procedure as subsections of the Method
section) would use Level 2 (flush left, boldface, uppercase andsection) would use Level 2 (flush left, boldface, uppercase and
lowercase letters).lowercase letters).
32

APAStyleEssentialsAPAStyleEssentials V. Text citationsV. Text citations
Source material must be documented in the body of theSource material must be documented in the body of the
paper by citing the author(s) and date(s) of the sources.paper by citing the author(s) and date(s) of the sources.
A.A. When the names of the authors of a source are part ofWhen the names of the authors of a source are part of
the formal structure of the sentence, the year ofthe formal structure of the sentence, the year of
publication appears in parentheses following thepublication appears in parentheses following the
identification of the authors. Example: Wirth and Mitchellidentification of the authors. Example: Wirth and Mitchell
(1994) found that….(1994) found that….
B.B. When the authors of a source are not part of theWhen the authors of a source are not part of the
formal structure of the sentence, both the authors andformal structure of the sentence, both the authors and
year of publication appear in parentheses. Example-year of publication appear in parentheses. Example-
Behaviors are related to higher levels of physical andBehaviors are related to higher levels of physical and
mental health (Koenig, 1990; Levin & Vanderpool, 1991).mental health (Koenig, 1990; Levin & Vanderpool, 1991).
[Note: when several sources are cited parenthetically, they[Note: when several sources are cited parenthetically, they
are ordered alphabetically by first authors' surnames andare ordered alphabetically by first authors' surnames and
separated by semicolons.]separated by semicolons.]
C.C. When a source that has two authors is cited, bothWhen a source that has two authors is cited, both
authors are included every time the source is cited.authors are included every time the source is cited.
Source material must be documented in the body of theSource material must be documented in the body of the
paper by citing the author(s) and date(s) of the sources.paper by citing the author(s) and date(s) of the sources.
A.A. When the names of the authors of a source are part ofWhen the names of the authors of a source are part of
the formal structure of the sentence, the year ofthe formal structure of the sentence, the year of
publication appears in parentheses following thepublication appears in parentheses following the
identification of the authors. Example: Wirth and Mitchellidentification of the authors. Example: Wirth and Mitchell
(1994) found that….(1994) found that….
B.B. When the authors of a source are not part of theWhen the authors of a source are not part of the
formal structure of the sentence, both the authors andformal structure of the sentence, both the authors and
year of publication appear in parentheses. Example-year of publication appear in parentheses. Example-
Behaviors are related to higher levels of physical andBehaviors are related to higher levels of physical and
mental health (Koenig, 1990; Levin & Vanderpool, 1991).mental health (Koenig, 1990; Levin & Vanderpool, 1991).
[Note: when several sources are cited parenthetically, they[Note: when several sources are cited parenthetically, they
are ordered alphabetically by first authors' surnames andare ordered alphabetically by first authors' surnames and
separated by semicolons.]separated by semicolons.]
C.C. When a source that has two authors is cited, bothWhen a source that has two authors is cited, both
authors are included every time the source is cited.authors are included every time the source is cited.
33

D.D. When a source that has three, four, or five authors isWhen a source that has three, four, or five authors is
cited, all authors are included the first time the source iscited, all authors are included the first time the source is
cited. When that source is cited again, the first author’scited. When that source is cited again, the first author’s
surname and “et al.” are used. Example: Behaviors aresurname and “et al.” are used. Example: Behaviors are
related to higher levels of physical and mental health (Payne,related to higher levels of physical and mental health (Payne,
Bergin, Bielema, & Jenkins, 1991). Payne et al. (1991)Bergin, Bielema, & Jenkins, 1991). Payne et al. (1991)
showed that …showed that …
E.E. When a source that has six or more authors is cited, theWhen a source that has six or more authors is cited, the
first author’s surname and “et al.” are used every time thefirst author’s surname and “et al.” are used every time the
source is cited (including the first time).source is cited (including the first time).
F.F. Every effort should be made to cite only sources that youEvery effort should be made to cite only sources that you
have actually read. When it is necessary to cite a source thathave actually read. When it is necessary to cite a source that
you have not read that is cited in a source that you haveyou have not read that is cited in a source that you have
read, use the following format for the text citation and listread, use the following format for the text citation and list
only the source you have read in the References list: Graysononly the source you have read in the References list: Grayson
(as cited in Murzynski & Degelman, 1996) identified four(as cited in Murzynski & Degelman, 1996) identified four
components of body language that were related to judgmentscomponents of body language that were related to judgments
of vulnerability.of vulnerability.
D.D. When a source that has three, four, or five authors isWhen a source that has three, four, or five authors is
cited, all authors are included the first time the source iscited, all authors are included the first time the source is
cited. When that source is cited again, the first author’scited. When that source is cited again, the first author’s
surname and “et al.” are used. Example: Behaviors aresurname and “et al.” are used. Example: Behaviors are
related to higher levels of physical and mental health (Payne,related to higher levels of physical and mental health (Payne,
Bergin, Bielema, & Jenkins, 1991). Payne et al. (1991)Bergin, Bielema, & Jenkins, 1991). Payne et al. (1991)
showed that …showed that …
E.E. When a source that has six or more authors is cited, theWhen a source that has six or more authors is cited, the
first author’s surname and “et al.” are used every time thefirst author’s surname and “et al.” are used every time the
source is cited (including the first time).source is cited (including the first time).
F.F. Every effort should be made to cite only sources that youEvery effort should be made to cite only sources that you
have actually read. When it is necessary to cite a source thathave actually read. When it is necessary to cite a source that
you have not read that is cited in a source that you haveyou have not read that is cited in a source that you have
read, use the following format for the text citation and listread, use the following format for the text citation and list
only the source you have read in the References list: Graysononly the source you have read in the References list: Grayson
(as cited in Murzynski & Degelman, 1996) identified four(as cited in Murzynski & Degelman, 1996) identified four
components of body language that were related to judgmentscomponents of body language that were related to judgments
of vulnerability.of vulnerability.
34

G.G. To cite a personal communication (including letters, emails,To cite a personal communication (including letters, emails,
and telephone interviews), include initials, surname, and asand telephone interviews), include initials, surname, and as
exact a date as possible. Because a personal communication isexact a date as possible. Because a personal communication is
not “recoverable” information, it is not included in thenot “recoverable” information, it is not included in the
References section. For the text citation, use the followingReferences section. For the text citation, use the following
format: B. F. Skinner (personal communication, February 12,format: B. F. Skinner (personal communication, February 12,
1978) claimed …1978) claimed …
H.H. To cite a Web document, use the author-date format. IfTo cite a Web document, use the author-date format. If
no author is identified, use the first few words of the title inno author is identified, use the first few words of the title in
place of the author. If no date is provided, use “n.d.” inplace of the author. If no date is provided, use “n.d.” in
place of the date. Examples: Degelman (2009) summarizesplace of the date. Examples: Degelman (2009) summarizes
guidelines for the use of APA writing style. Changes in genderguidelines for the use of APA writing style. Changes in gender
status differences have been documented (status differences have been documented (Gender andGender and
SocietySociety, n.d.)., n.d.).
I.I. To cite the Bible, provide the book, chapter, and verse.To cite the Bible, provide the book, chapter, and verse.
The first time the Bible is cited in the text, identify theThe first time the Bible is cited in the text, identify the
version used. Example: “You are forgiving, O Lord, aboundingversion used. Example: “You are forgiving, O Lord, abounding
in love to all” (Psalm 86:5, New International Version). [Note:in love to all” (Psalm 86:5, New International Version). [Note:
No entry in the References list is needed for the Bible.]No entry in the References list is needed for the Bible.]
G.G. To cite a personal communication (including letters, emails,To cite a personal communication (including letters, emails,
and telephone interviews), include initials, surname, and asand telephone interviews), include initials, surname, and as
exact a date as possible. Because a personal communication isexact a date as possible. Because a personal communication is
not “recoverable” information, it is not included in thenot “recoverable” information, it is not included in the
References section. For the text citation, use the followingReferences section. For the text citation, use the following
format: B. F. Skinner (personal communication, February 12,format: B. F. Skinner (personal communication, February 12,
1978) claimed …1978) claimed …
H.H. To cite a Web document, use the author-date format. IfTo cite a Web document, use the author-date format. If
no author is identified, use the first few words of the title inno author is identified, use the first few words of the title in
place of the author. If no date is provided, use “n.d.” inplace of the author. If no date is provided, use “n.d.” in
place of the date. Examples: Degelman (2009) summarizesplace of the date. Examples: Degelman (2009) summarizes
guidelines for the use of APA writing style. Changes in genderguidelines for the use of APA writing style. Changes in gender
status differences have been documented (status differences have been documented (Gender andGender and
SocietySociety, n.d.)., n.d.).
I.I. To cite the Bible, provide the book, chapter, and verse.To cite the Bible, provide the book, chapter, and verse.
The first time the Bible is cited in the text, identify theThe first time the Bible is cited in the text, identify the
version used. Example: “You are forgiving, O Lord, aboundingversion used. Example: “You are forgiving, O Lord, abounding
in love to all” (Psalm 86:5, New International Version). [Note:in love to all” (Psalm 86:5, New International Version). [Note:
No entry in the References list is needed for the Bible.]No entry in the References list is needed for the Bible.]35

APAStyleEssentialsAPAStyleEssentials VI. QuotationsVI. Quotations
When a direct quotation is used, always include theWhen a direct quotation is used, always include the
author, year, and page number as part of the citation.author, year, and page number as part of the citation.
A.A. A quotation of fewer than 40 words should beA quotation of fewer than 40 words should be
enclosed in double quotation marks and should beenclosed in double quotation marks and should be
incorporated into the formal structure of theincorporated into the formal structure of the
sentence. Example: Patients receiving prayer hadsentence. Example: Patients receiving prayer had
“less congestive heart failure, required less“less congestive heart failure, required less
antibiotic therapy, had fewer episodes ofantibiotic therapy, had fewer episodes of
pneumonia, had fewer cardiac arrests” (Byrd,pneumonia, had fewer cardiac arrests” (Byrd,
1988, p. 829).1988, p. 829).
B.B. A lengthier quotation of 40 or more wordsA lengthier quotation of 40 or more words
should appear (without quotation marks) apart fromshould appear (without quotation marks) apart from
the surrounding text, in block format, with eachthe surrounding text, in block format, with each
line indented five spaces from the left margin.line indented five spaces from the left margin.
When a direct quotation is used, always include theWhen a direct quotation is used, always include the
author, year, and page number as part of the citation.author, year, and page number as part of the citation.
A.A. A quotation of fewer than 40 words should beA quotation of fewer than 40 words should be
enclosed in double quotation marks and should beenclosed in double quotation marks and should be
incorporated into the formal structure of theincorporated into the formal structure of the
sentence. Example: Patients receiving prayer hadsentence. Example: Patients receiving prayer had
“less congestive heart failure, required less“less congestive heart failure, required less
antibiotic therapy, had fewer episodes ofantibiotic therapy, had fewer episodes of
pneumonia, had fewer cardiac arrests” (Byrd,pneumonia, had fewer cardiac arrests” (Byrd,
1988, p. 829).1988, p. 829).
B.B. A lengthier quotation of 40 or more wordsA lengthier quotation of 40 or more words
should appear (without quotation marks) apart fromshould appear (without quotation marks) apart from
the surrounding text, in block format, with eachthe surrounding text, in block format, with each
line indented five spaces from the left margin.line indented five spaces from the left margin.
36

APAStyleEssentialsAPAStyleEssentials VII. ReferencesVII. References
All sources cited in the paper must beAll sources cited in the paper must be
included in the References section.included in the References section.
Pagination:Pagination: The References section beginsThe References section begins
on a new page.on a new page.
Heading:Heading: “References” (centered on the“References” (centered on the
first line below the running head).first line below the running head).
Format:Format: The references (with hangingThe references (with hanging
indent) begin on the line following theindent) begin on the line following the
References heading. Entries areReferences heading. Entries are
organized alphabetically by surnames oforganized alphabetically by surnames of
first authors.first authors.
All sources cited in the paper must beAll sources cited in the paper must be
included in the References section.included in the References section.
Pagination:Pagination: The References section beginsThe References section begins
on a new page.on a new page.
Heading:Heading: “References” (centered on the“References” (centered on the
first line below the running head).first line below the running head).
Format:Format: The references (with hangingThe references (with hanging
indent) begin on the line following theindent) begin on the line following the
References heading. Entries areReferences heading. Entries are
organized alphabetically by surnames oforganized alphabetically by surnames of
first authors.first authors.
37

APAStyleEssentialsAPAStyleEssentials VII. ReferencesVII. References
Reference entries have the following components-Reference entries have the following components-
Authors:Authors: Authors are listed in the same order asAuthors are listed in the same order as
specified in the source, using surnames and initials.specified in the source, using surnames and initials.
Year of Publication:Year of Publication: In parentheses following authors,In parentheses following authors,
with a period following the closing parenthesis. If nowith a period following the closing parenthesis. If no
publication date is identified, use “n.d.” in parenthesespublication date is identified, use “n.d.” in parentheses
following the authors.following the authors.
Source Reference:Source Reference: Includes title, journal, volume, pagesIncludes title, journal, volume, pages
(for journal article) or title, city of publication,(for journal article) or title, city of publication,
publisher (for book). Italicize titles of books, titles ofpublisher (for book). Italicize titles of books, titles of
periodicals, and periodical volume numbers.periodicals, and periodical volume numbers.
Electronic Retrieval Information:Electronic Retrieval Information: Electronic retrievalElectronic retrieval
information may include digital object identifiers (DOIs)information may include digital object identifiers (DOIs)
or uniform resource locators (URLs). DOIs are uniqueor uniform resource locators (URLs). DOIs are unique
alphanumeric identifiers that lead users to digital sourcealphanumeric identifiers that lead users to digital source
material.material.
Reference entries have the following components-Reference entries have the following components-
Authors:Authors: Authors are listed in the same order asAuthors are listed in the same order as
specified in the source, using surnames and initials.specified in the source, using surnames and initials.
Year of Publication:Year of Publication: In parentheses following authors,In parentheses following authors,
with a period following the closing parenthesis. If nowith a period following the closing parenthesis. If no
publication date is identified, use “n.d.” in parenthesespublication date is identified, use “n.d.” in parentheses
following the authors.following the authors.
Source Reference:Source Reference: Includes title, journal, volume, pagesIncludes title, journal, volume, pages
(for journal article) or title, city of publication,(for journal article) or title, city of publication,
publisher (for book). Italicize titles of books, titles ofpublisher (for book). Italicize titles of books, titles of
periodicals, and periodical volume numbers.periodicals, and periodical volume numbers.
Electronic Retrieval Information:Electronic Retrieval Information: Electronic retrievalElectronic retrieval
information may include digital object identifiers (DOIs)information may include digital object identifiers (DOIs)
or uniform resource locators (URLs). DOIs are uniqueor uniform resource locators (URLs). DOIs are unique
alphanumeric identifiers that lead users to digital sourcealphanumeric identifiers that lead users to digital source
material.material.
38

APAStyleEssentialsAPAStyleEssentials Examples of sourcesExamples of sources
1.1. Journal article with digital object identifiers (DOI)Journal article with digital object identifiers (DOI)
Murzynski, J., & Degelman, D. (1996). Body language ofMurzynski, J., & Degelman, D. (1996). Body language of
women and judgments of vulnerability to sexual assault.women and judgments of vulnerability to sexual assault.
Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26,Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 1617-1626.1617-1626.
2.2. Journal article without DOI, print versionJournal article without DOI, print version Koenig, H. G.Koenig, H. G.
(1990). Research on religion and mental health in later life: A(1990). Research on religion and mental health in later life: A
review and commentary.review and commentary. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23,Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23,
23-53.23-53.
3.3. Journal article without DOI, retrieved onlineJournal article without DOI, retrieved online Aldridge, D.Aldridge, D.
(1991). Spirituality, healing and medicine.(1991). Spirituality, healing and medicine. British Journal ofBritish Journal of
General Practice, 41,General Practice, 41, 425-427. Retrieved from425-427. Retrieved from
http://www.rcgp.org.uk/publications/bjgp.aspxhttp://www.rcgp.org.uk/publications/bjgp.aspx
4.4. BookBook Paloutzian, R. F. (1996).Paloutzian, R. F. (1996). Invitation to the psychologyInvitation to the psychology
of religionof religion (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.(2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
5.5. Informally published Web documentInformally published Web document Degelman, D. (2009).Degelman, D. (2009).
APA style essentials.APA style essentials.
1.1. Journal article with digital object identifiers (DOI)Journal article with digital object identifiers (DOI)
Murzynski, J., & Degelman, D. (1996). Body language ofMurzynski, J., & Degelman, D. (1996). Body language of
women and judgments of vulnerability to sexual assault.women and judgments of vulnerability to sexual assault.
Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26,Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 1617-1626.1617-1626.
2.2. Journal article without DOI, print versionJournal article without DOI, print version Koenig, H. G.Koenig, H. G.
(1990). Research on religion and mental health in later life: A(1990). Research on religion and mental health in later life: A
review and commentary.review and commentary. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23,Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23,
23-53.23-53.
3.3. Journal article without DOI, retrieved onlineJournal article without DOI, retrieved online Aldridge, D.Aldridge, D.
(1991). Spirituality, healing and medicine.(1991). Spirituality, healing and medicine. British Journal ofBritish Journal of
General Practice, 41,General Practice, 41, 425-427. Retrieved from425-427. Retrieved from
http://www.rcgp.org.uk/publications/bjgp.aspxhttp://www.rcgp.org.uk/publications/bjgp.aspx
4.4. BookBook Paloutzian, R. F. (1996).Paloutzian, R. F. (1996). Invitation to the psychologyInvitation to the psychology
of religionof religion (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.(2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
5.5. Informally published Web documentInformally published Web document Degelman, D. (2009).Degelman, D. (2009).
APA style essentials.APA style essentials.
VII. ReferencesVII. References
39

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