1. Tim Power
Military Identity and Indigenous Relations in Cymbeline
In the play Cymbeline, Shakespeare explores the relationships of native and foreign
nations and how it affects the construction of national identity. Specifically, Shakespeare
emphasizes the relationships that Britain has with Rome, as well as with Britain’s geographic
neighbor, Wales. In his article “Anglo-Welsh Relations in Cymbeline,” Ronald Boling discusses
how Wales is critical in depicting British nationality and early British history. Wales functions
by mirroring the imperialistic fate of Britain to Rome, however what the article does not take
into extensive consideration are the foreign powers that are also effected by Roman invasion,
which are passively portrayed through the Britain-Roman relations. In her article “Illyrians in
Cymbeline,” Lea Juric writes about how the two brief instances where the Illyrians are
mentioned give an important historical perspective that rationalizes Cymbeline’s decisions to cut
the tribune with Rome. Although each article discusses the imperial relationship between Rome
and Briton and Briton to Wales, neither examines the dynamics of imperialism with patriotism.
Through the Anglo-Welsh relationships, Shakespeare exhibits a less nationalistic account of the
early history of Britain, which sympathizes with the indigenous peoples and shows that
patriotism is a paradigm of military expansion.
There are two instances in which the Dalmatians and Pannonians are discussed; one
presents them as allies, the other presents them as a rebellious force towards Roman expansion.
In her article “Illyrians in Cymbeline,” Lea Juric writes, “important parallels between the
historical accounts of the Pannonians and Dalmatians and of the ancient Britons during the reign
of Augustus Caesar inform the portrayal of British proto-national struggles in Cymbeline” (428).
When Cymbeline cuts ties with Rome, it is through the use of the Illyrians that he presents to the

2. audience a solidarity towards them, which further depicts a sympathetic view of indigenous
people. “I am perfect/ That the Pannonians and Dalmations for/ Their liberties are now in arms a
precedent/ which not to read would show the Britons cold:” depicts the Illyrians as comrades and
shows that Briton takes sympathy towards the Illyrians (3.1.71-73). By saying “perfect,”
Cymbeline, the ruler of Briton, appears to be aware of the feelings of the lesser powers that have
fallen to Rome, which depicts him as a more humanitarian ruler. This is a pivotal moment in the
play in terms of depicting British identity. Presenting to an audience a Cymbeline that
sympathizes with foreign powers that have succumbed to imperialistic Rome raises the question
as to why Cymbeline does not sympathize with the Welsh. Later in the play, it becomes clear
that the relationship between Wales and Briton is depicted through Cymbeline and Belarius, but
that relationship is centered on greed and corruption in the city. The Illyrians were invaded by
Rome first, given their geographical location, so up until this point they have, and continue, to be
under Roman rule; similarly, the Britons invaded the Welsh first in respect to their geography yet
Cymbeline choses solidarity with the Illyrians, which are nations that have been under invasion
longer. If Shakespeare were to depict Cymbeline as sympathizing with Wales, it would not have
the same effect in terms of patriotism because Wales has already been incorporated into the
nation. This would depict Cymbeline, and Briton, as hypocrites by going against, and taking
back, their own nation. This shows the British identity as one that diverts their own military
expansion in order to seem sympathetic towards nations not directly affected by their
imperialism.
The military definition of the word “arms” further depicts the actual influence that the
Romans have on the Illyrians (“Arms”). “Arms” has an anatomical definition but also has an
alternate definition that exhibits the war torn state in which Illyria is in, as a result of the

3. Romans; “arms,” during Shakespeare’s time, originally has a meaning of weapons which is a
motif in the play for imperialism. This war image depicts the freedoms of Illyria as the exact
opposite; the juxtaposition shows that the Illyrians no longer have freedom even though it may
seem that Rome invading them was a positive thing, just as how the tribute made between Briton
and Rome appeared to be beneficial to both parties. Cymbeline’s acknowledgment of this, and
ultimately his sympathy towards Illyria, is associated with the British identity; “Which not to
read would show the Britons cold;” (3.2.73). What Cymbeline essentially says is that if Briton
did not take into consideration the downfall of the Illyrians to Rome, Briton would be subject to
being “cold,” and lacking the patriotic spirit needed in order for them to survive as a nation.
Presented to Shakespeare’s audience, this solidarity with the Illyrians shows the last ruling King
of Briton as a noble ruler but also one that jeopardizes the political power of the country; the
treaty that is set between the Romans and Britons is used to stabilize the two nations, and
although there is a lack of sense in Cymbeline’s decision to discontinue it, his humanitarian act
exhibits his nobility. This first discussion of the Illyrians presents a foundation of British
identity as one that uses fallen foreign nations as a scapegoat in order for Britain to appear
sympathetic and on the positive side of history, while ignoring the suffering of the Welsh people
and not taking into account Britons own military and political propaganda.
The second discussion of the Illyrians occurs in a public place in Rome between two
Senators. The scene is short yet its functions has massive insight onto the seemingly
discriminatory nature of the Romans in regards to the Britons. The insulting nature of the first
Senator to the Illyrians makes it clear that there is no sympathy towards the Illyrians. “Since the
common men are now in action/ ‘Gainst the Pannonians and Dalmatians,/ And that the legions
now in Gallia are/ Full weak” shows that nations in Gallia have been exhausted to the point

4. where they can no longer defend themselves, and that the Romans send “common men” to
defend against the Illyrians, is insulting in terms of the nations strength. This is the only scene
that takes place in Rome, which shows that domestically the discrimination towards the Britons
is out of their view; without directly seeing it, the Romans mock the ease they have in
conquering not only Briton, but all the other nations that have succumbed to the Roman empire,
this is accomplished through the insult of the Illyrians. This scene exposes the Romans and
depicts them as discriminatory, which puts the Britons on a side of history that encompasses
them in a prism of oppression. However, one of the functions of this scene is to further exhibit
the complexity of the status of Briton; the double function of Briton in the Boling article
becomes crucial here. It is in this scene where we see Briton as the true colony to Rome instead
of a strong imperialistic power that took over Wales. The vulnerability of Briton and rawness is
compared to that of the Illyrians which puts into perspective, the placement of Briton in the
Roman empire. This placement clearly degrades Briton, which in turn, diminished the value of
patriotism in the national identity of Briton.
Another more technical deviation that further shows the aggressiveness of Roman
imperialism and thus passively offering sympathy towards its victims, is the metrical deviation
that occurs in line 10. “His absolute commission. Long live Caesar!” starts off in an iamb but
switches at the fourth foot, and after the period, begins again with a trochee (3.7.10). This
deviation occurs right when the first Senator chants a patriotic slogan hailing the triumphs of
Caesar. This slogan amplifies the strong patriotism that the Romans feel and is juxtaposed with
the diminishing patriotism and nationalism of the Illyrians and the Britons; as the Romans
become more patriotic, the surrounding nations do not. This occurs in the same speech where
the Illyrians are described as “full weak,” suggesting that national identity is centered on the

5. military strength of the nation as opposed to a more spiritual one centered on the lives of the
people. The stressed “long” compared to the unstressed “live” exhibits that the Romans value
longevity more than life; if one Caesar is responsible for expansion and growth, the Romans
wish for a longer life of that Caesar that way they can continue to expand.
With the true influence of the Roman invasion being clear one of the most important
characters in the play offers a non-Roman perspective on national identity, yet it a character that
is exiled from Briton to Wales. In his article “Anglo-Welsh Relations in Cymbeline,” Ronald
Boling writes, “Cymbeline’s Britain plays a double role, empire to Wales but colony to Rome: as
Cymbeline’s Wales is anglicized, so Cymbeline’s Britain is Romanized” (35). Belarius is an
interesting character because although he lives in Wales, he himself is not Welsh. He kidnaps
the sons of Cymbeline, and he teaches them to value and appreciate nature; he encompasses
many pastoral and natural elements that depict him and Wales as a more peaceful state. “A pain
that only seems to seek out danger” has two synonyms that present the corruption of the city as a
result of Roman influence (3.3.50). “Pain,” is synonymous with “labor” (Norton note), and
considering that “pain” is seeking “out danger/ I’th’name of fame and honour, which dies I’th’
search” Belarius claims that Britain has experienced that moral destruction in which virtuous and
just traits have been lost in the quest to reach a Roman utopia (3.3.50-51). Through this anti-
British perspective, it depicts Britain as an oppressive power that was once great but then
tarnished by imperialistic Rome. Belarius seems to believe that Briton was once a just place
having those virtues yet in finding “fame” and “honour” it has become a corrupt institution that
will soon fall to Roman invasion, just like the Illyrians. “Pain” also has a medical connotation
that implies that the labor required for a nation to expand cannot be done without some
discomfort or moral sin. It is made clear that higher level authorities in Rome have no moral

6. problem expanding an empire, yet Belarius offers a perspective of someone who has suffered as
a result of national expansion. This view parallels the earlier view of the “common man” being
sent to defend against the Illyrians, the common men are the ones that see the direct pain of
imperialism as depicted through Belarius’ former status as a nobleman in Cymbeline’s court.
His former status would not normally feel a guilt that comes with invading a country, as depicted
by the derogatory tones of the Roman Senators, yet because Belarius is in Wales, it gives him a
moral compass that other characters in the play lack. After the take over of Wales, Belarius
knows the direct consequences that imperialism has on common men and through this,
Shakespeare further exhibits patriotism and national identity that is based on the suffering of
indigenous people.
The moral corruption that goes into shaping the national identity is partly centered on
turning a blind eye to the sufferings of not only indigenous people but also people of lower social
status; the point at which a society loses sight of the value of a living human life, that is the point
in which it is morally corrupted. As Belarius later goes on to say, “My body marked/With
Roman swords, and my report was once/First with the best of note” the use of an imperialistic
symbol, Belarius reveals the true cause of Britain’s moral corruption. “Marked” conveys the
influence of the Roman sword, a symbol of Roman imperialism, his body has become scarred by
the greed brought over by the Romans. “Marked” also has a connotation of labeling or
categorizing objects. Given Belarius’ already oppressed status, the image of a sword marking or
labeling him further degrades him, instead, by Roman standards instead of British standards.
This double meaning of the word “marked,” juxtaposed with the harsh image of a “Roman
sword,” exhibits Roman expansion and invasion as more destructive and obtrusive power than as
a positive influential force in shaping the nation of Britain.

7. Through natural imagery, Belarius tells the story of his unjust exile form Briton.
Although the Welsh were invaded by the Britons prior to Roman invasion, their relationship is
still important in understanding the British founding and national identity. The betrayal of
Cymbeline to Belarius reflects the take over of Britain to Wales as exhibited by Belairus’ speech.
In the same speech, Belarius switches to a more fruitful and pastoral image in order to depict his
unjust exile. “Then was I as a tree/ Whose boughs did bend with fruit” depicts Belarius as the
source of life, and again depicts him and Wales as a natural and peaceful state (3.3.60-61). The
imagery used presents one side of history as generous and kind; yet the Welsh generosity and
kindness is also presented as their weakness. “But in one night/ A storm or robbery, call it what
you will,” (3.3.61-63), shows the invasion of Wales as an act fueled off of the vulnerability of
the Welsh and their kindness to share resources. The fact that Belarius does call the act of
invasion as a “robbery” or a “storm” already shows the skewed history of Britain. It is clear
through the placement of the words that Belarius believes that, like a robber, Wales was stolen
by the British, having experienced first hand the military power of Cymbeline’s court. However
the primary word in the line is “storm.” “Storm” implies natural forces, and although harsh and
sometimes violent, is out of the control of the tree, or Wales. This depicts Britain’s invasion of
Wales as one that is fateful and naturally bound to happen. Leaving it up to the listener to decide
on how to perceive the image and act, shows how the Welsh perspective is lost in understanding
the Pre-Roman history of Britain, which is ultimately the beginning of the nations identity.
The last few lines of the speech express more of the damage done by Roman invasion;
“Shook down my mellow hangings, nay, my leaves/ And left me bare to weather” (3.3.62-63).
“Shook” shows the force that was used in order for the “mellow hangings” to fall; however,
regardless of how the audience perceives the Britain’s (storm or robber), shook is an action that

8. both of those subjects can impose. Regardless of if it is the winds brought on by a storm or the
forceful shake of a robber, the Welsh in this regard are stripped of their resources and left to rely
solely on the force that invaded them, just as the Illyrians are left to thrive on their Roman
invaders. It is clear that the Welsh side and perspective is lost in understanding the British
identity prior to Roman invasion because Shakespeare decides to use an exiled nobleman to
depict a Welsh perspective, which further shows a biased proto-British perspective of Wales;
however through this speech Shakespeare is expressing the lost Welsh perspective and by
bringing attention to the corruption of the city, it has a sympathetic tone towards the innocent
Welsh.
Anglo-Welsh relations in Cymbeline are pivotal in understanding not only the history of
early Briton but also understanding the perception of the British national identity. It is clear
through the Illyrians and Belarius, that Shakespeare creates a more historically accurate creation
of this time period of British history. This accuracy also evokes sympathy towards the Welsh
and Illyrians and simultaneously diminishes and undermines the patriotism of British identity.
This harsh reality exhibits the principle of national identity as a paradigm of empirical expansion
through the suffering of indigenous peoples. What makes the British identity complex is its
double role as a colony and empire; audiences can neither truly sympathize with the British
because of their take over of Wales, yet they also have a right to feel pathos towards Briton
because their outcome is similar to that of the Illyrians, a society that prior to the play has
already fallen at the hands of Rome. These specific instances of external relationships between
the British with domestic and foreign relations brings awareness the importance of not losing
sight, as a nation, the causes and consequences of its formation.

10. Works Cited
“Arms.” Oxford English Dictionary. 2011.n .pag. Oxford English Dictionary. Web. 21
Apr. 2016
Boling, Ronald J. "Anglo-Welsh Relations in Cymbeline." Shakespeare Quarterly 51.1
(2000): 33. JSTOR [JSTOR]. Web. 6 Apr. 2016.
This article discusses the critical relationship between the Welsh and British. The article
discusses the relationship between England and Wales in a play that is centered on the
relationship between Rome and Britain. It discusses how Britain serves multiple purposes in the
play and how it functions in the relationship of Britain to Rome. It discusses how Welsh culture
became lost to the British yet the Britain’s were able to retain their own customs after Roman
invasion. The article mentions how geographically close Wales is to Britain yet how it is treated
as a discrete geographical entity. It also discusses how dramatists draw on two principles of the
invasion: dramatizing the imperial war of it and portray the Welsh in a hostile and barbaric
people. The article also discusses character interactions in the play the parallel interactions
between Britain and Wales, and ultimately how Shakespeare portrayed Pembrokeshire
influenced the ending of the play.
Juric, Lea Puljcan. "Illyrians In "Cymbeline.." English Literary Renaissance 42.3 (2012):
425-451. Literary Reference Center. Web. 6 Apr. 2016.
This article offers an in depth analysis of the subtle yet strong influence of the Illyrians in
Cymbeline. It offers an interesting analysis using the geographical principles and space of Rome,
Illyria, and Briton as a platform to analyze pro-natal struggles in “Cymbeline.” It not only offers

11. extensive historically background knowledge but also addresses vague and subjective ideas such
as what constitutes a society as barbaric and then relates it back to the understanding on national
identity in the play.