Chapter 8 Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 8
Fundamentals
of
Anatomy
&
Physiology

Fundamentals of Anatomy and physiology
8.1 Define Anatomy, Physiology & Its Importance
8.2 Function of Skeleton System, Classification of Bones &
Types of Joints
8.3 Properties of Muscles
8.4 Function and Structure Of Muscles
8.5 Function and Structure of Respiratory System, Mechanism
of Respiration
8.6 Structure of Heart and Introduction to Circulatory
System
8.7 Oxygen Debt, Second Wind

Anatomy :
Anatomy is the scientific study of
the structure of organisms including
their systems, organs and tissues.
It includes the appearance and
position of the various parts, the
materials from which they are
composed, their locations and
their relationships with other parts.

Human Anatomy :
Human Anatomy is the study of the structure,
shape, size, weight & location of all the organs of
human body.
A detailed knowledge of the
structures of various systems
of human body.

Human Physiology :
Physiology is the study of all the systems of
human body & their mutual relationships.

Importance of Anatomy & Physiology in
Physical Ed.
Anatomy & physiology are inter related.
The knowledge of anatomy & physiology
is essential, to know Physical education
and sports from scientific point of view.
The performance of an athlete can
be improved by understanding the
effect of exercises on various body
parts of the athlete.

Physical Ed.
1. Anatomy provides the knowledge of
structure of various organs
2. Physiology provides the knowledge about
the functions of various organs
3. Helpful in prevention of sports injuries
4. Helpful in the process of rehabilitation
5. Helpful in selection of sports
6. Helpful in preparation of training
programme

Physical Ed.
7. Helpful to know about chemical changes
during exercise
8. Helpful to know about anatomical &
physiological differences among males &
females
9. Helpful in providing first aid to sports
persons
10. Helpful in physical fitness development
11. Helpful in sports massage
12. Helpful in providing the knowledge of
environmental effects on sports persons

Chemical changes during exercise

8.2 Function of Skeleton System, Classification
of Bones & Types of Joints
Skeleton System :
The human skeleton is the internal
framework of the body. It is composed of
270 bones at birth which decreases to 206
bones by adulthood after some bones have
fused together.
The human skeleton serves major functions
like support, movement, protection, etc.

8.2 Function of Skeleton System, Classification
of Bones & Types of Joints

8.2 Skeleton System : 2 Parts
Skeleton System :
The human skeleton system can be divided
into two parts :
 Axial Skeleton
formed by the vertebral column, the rib
cage and the skull.
 Appendicular Skeleton.
is attached to the axial skeleton, is formed
by the pectoral girdle, the pelvic girdle and
the bones of the upper and lower limbs.

8.2 Skeleton System : 2 Parts
Skeleton System
Axial Skeleton Appendicular
Skeleton
1. Skull 28 Upper Limb 64
2. Sternum 1 Lower Limbs 62
3. Ribs 24
4. Hyoid Bone 1
5. Vertebral
Column
24(adults)

8.2 Function of Skeleton System
1.Provide Support
2.Provide Protection
3.Bony System Serves for the
Attachment of Muscles
4.Bony System gives Shape to the
Body
5.Act as Levers
6.Passive Instruments of Locomotion

8.2 Classification of Bones
According to shape & formation :
1. Long bones,
2. Short bones,
3. Flat bones,
4. Irregular bones,
5. Sesamoid bones

Classification of Bones
1. Long bone
Elongated bone to which powerful muscles, such as those of the
leg and arm, are attached.
2. Short bone
Bones shaped somewhat like cubes that facilitate flexibility of the
joints; examples include the bones of the wrist and ankle.
3. Flat bone
Thin bones that protect certain organs, including
most of the bones of the skull as well as the
scapula.
4. Irregular bone
Bones of varying shapes and sizes, such as the
vertebrae and certain bones of the skull or pelvis.
5. Sesamoid bone
Resemble seed of sesame. Found in knee, hand &
foot

Long bones,
Short bones,
Flat bones,
Irregular bones,
Sesamoid bones

8.2 Types of Joints
 Joint is the place at which 2 or more bones meet in
skeleton of the body.
 Joint may be fixed or moveable.
 Study of joint is Arthrology.
 According to capability of movement , the joints can
be classified into 3 categories:
1. Immovable or Synarthroses Joints
2. Slightly Moveable or Ampharthroses Joints
3. Freely Moveable or Diarthroses Joints

1. Immovable or Synarthroses Joints
Called fibrous joints.
Found in the bones of
skull

 Surfaces of the bones are separated by some
intervening substance
 Only slight movement is possible.
 Two varieties:
 Symphysis: a joint where 2 long bony
surfaces are connected by a broad, flat
disc of fibrocartilage e.g. inter-vertebral &
pubis joint.
 Synchondrosis: a temporary form of joint.
Cartilage is changed to bone before
adulthood. Found between diaphysis &
epiphyses of bones.

-Two varieties

3. Freely Moveable or Diarthroses Joints
Freely Moveable or Synovial joints:
Include most of the types of joints of the body.
Bones are covered with the hyaline cartilage
& are surrounded by a fibrous articular
capsule which is strengthened by ligaments.
Six categories:
Gliding joints
Hinge joints
Condyloid joints
Saddle joints
Ball & socket joints
Pivot joints

Freely Moveable or Synovial jointsGliding
joints
Between bones that meet at flat or nearly
flat articular surfaces.
Hinge
joints
One rounded surface fits into another in
such a way that movement is only
possible in one plane, as in elbow joint.
Condyloid
joints
(ellipsoid)
Allow an angular movement in 2
direction-flexion, extension, abduction,
adduction, circumduction.as in the wrist
joint but not rotation.
Saddle
joints
This joint permits great freedom of
movement, enabling the thumb to be
opposed to the fingers
Ball &
socket
joint
One rounded extremity fits into a cavity of
another bone, permitting movement in all
directions e.g., the hip joint and the
shoulder joint.
Pivot joints Joints with rotary movement in one axis,
ring rotates around a pivot e.g. atlas &
axis bones at the top of neck, forearm

Muscle cells, also known as muscle fibers or
myocytes, are the fundamental units of our
muscles. Following 4 properties distinguish them
from other cells
1. Excitability
Capable of stimulation by nerves thru chemical signals
2. Contractility
Capable of contracting when stimulated by neural input
3. Extensibility
Possess extensibility, or the capacity to stretch
4. Elasticity
Capable of returning to its original resting length after
being stretched

 Contractibility = cells generate pulling force
 Excitibility = nervous impulses travel through
muscle plasma membrane to stimulate contraction
 Extensibility = after contraction muscle can be
stretched back to original length by opposing muscle
action
 Elasticity = after being stretched, muscle passively
recoils to resume its resting length

8.4 Structure & Functions of Muscles

Structure of Muscles
All the muscles in the human body show biochemical specialisation which
allows them to perform their particular physiological functions. The eyeballs
are steered by extra-ocular muscles when reading: they must contract quickly
and precisely, but the muscles in the back and buttocks evolved for continuous
heavy lifting where fuel economy is important. The hollow viscera often
require a slow steady squeeze to function properly. Three types on the basis of
their structure:
1) Voluntary or skeletal muscle is under conscious control. Each fibre is an
enormous, multi-nucleate cell, formed by fusing hundreds of myoblasts end-to-
end. They show a striated pattern, reflecting the regular arrangement of
sarcomeres within each cell.
2) Cardiac muscle is similar to skeletal muscle, but is not under conscious
control. These mono-nucleate cells are much smaller, but still show a striated
pattern.
3) Involuntary or Smooth muscle is closer to non-muscle cells. No regular
striations are visible and the contractions are much slower. Smooth muscle is
found in the blood vessels, gut, skin, eye pupils, urinary and reproductive
tracts.

Skeletal or Voluntary or Striped Muscle
Two broad types: slow twitch and fast twitch
Type I, slow twitch, or "red" muscle
 is dense with capillaries
 is rich in mitochondria and myoglobin, giving the
muscle tissue its characteristic red color.
 It can carry more oxygen and
sustain aerobic activity using fats or carbohydrates
as fuel.
 Slow twitch fibers contract for long periods of time
but with little force.

Skeletal or Voluntary Muscle
Type II, Fast twitch muscle
Three major subtypes (IIa, IIx, and IIb) that vary in both
contractile speed and force generated.
Fast twitch fibers contract quickly and powerfully but fatigue
very rapidly, sustaining only short, anaerobic bursts of activity
before muscle contraction becomes painful.
They contribute most to muscle strength and have greater
potential for increase in mass.
Type IIb is anaerobic, glycolytic, "white" muscle that is least
dense in mitochondria and myoglobin
In small animals (e.g., rodents) this is the major fast muscle
type, explaining the pale color of their flesh.

Involuntary or Smooth or Unstriped Muscle
 Responsible for
characteristic
movements associated
with alimentary canal
Control and adjust the
diameter of blood
vessels and the ducts
of glandular tissue
Contract without
nervous stimulation
Respond slowly to
stimuli but are capable
of long time sustained
contractions
Oesophagus
Stomach
Pyloric sphincter
Duodenum

Cardiac Muscle
 Found in Heart
 Involuntary
 Little capacity for
regeneration
Colour of the fibre is red
Stripes like Voluntary
muscles
Fibres have branches

Movement
Stability
Thermogenesis
Body movement
Respiration
Constriction of organs and vessels
Heart beat
Functions of Muscles

1. The muscular system creates movement
 Primary function to produce voluntary gross and fine
movements.
 Large movements include walking, standing, running,
playing sports and lifting weights
 Smaller movements include chewing, closing the
eyes, writing and talking

2. It protects the organs
 Abdominal muscles and the muscles of the lower back help
protect the vital organs of the body.
 The rectus abdominus, or “six pack” muscle, the obliques found
at the sides of the torso and the transverse abdominus running
side to side across the front of the abdominal cavity protect the
organs from the front and sides.
 Lats, quadrates lumborum and the psoas muscles, which run
from the bottom area of the ribs to the pelvic bones protect the
organs from the back of the abdominal cavity.

3. The cardiac muscle pumps blood
 Contraction of the heart muscle is involuntary and primarily
controlled by the heart’s own electrical system.
 Heart is responsible for receiving blood back from muscles,
pumping it into the lungs then pumping it out into the arteries to
supply the entire body.
4. Smooth muscle aids digestion
 Muscles of the stomach and intestines work to process the
ingested food
 Involuntary contractions in the stomach and intestines aid in
digestion and in moving the food along the digestive tract

5. Smooth muscle ensures blood flow
 There are smooth muscles in the walls of the blood vessels.
 When the heart contracts, the arteries expand to accept blood
 The smooth muscles in the arteries contract to push the blood
throughout the blood vessel systems in the body.
 This is why when plaque builds up on the inside of the walls of
the arteries, the arteries harden and the muscles in the arteries
do not contract properly.

8.5 Structure and Functions of Respiratory
System, Mechanism of Respiration
Respiratory system is the system in human body
that enables to breathe in oxygen & release co².
The act of breathing includes:
 Inhaling and exhaling air in the body
 Absorption of oxygen from the air in order to
produce energy
 Discharge of carbon dioxide, which is the
byproduct of the process

8.5 Structure of Respiratory System
The parts of the Respiratory system :
1.Upper Respiratory tract:
This includes the nose, mouth, and the beginning of the
trachea (the section that takes air in and lets it out).
2. Lower Respiratory tract:
This includes the trachea, the bronchi, bronchioles and
the lungs (the act of breathing takes place in this part of
the system).

The main
parts are :
 The nostrils
 Pharynx
 Larynx
 Trachea
 Bronchi
 Lungs
 Alveolus
 Diaphragm

Parts of the Upper Respiratory Tract
Mouth, nose & nasal cavity:
The function of this part of the system is to warm, filter and
moisten the incoming air
Pharynx:
Here the throat divides into the trachea (wind pipe) and
esophagus (food pipe).
There is also a small flap of cartilage called the epiglottis
which prevents food from entering the trachea
Larynx:
This is also known as the voice box as it is where sound is
generated.

Parts of the Lower Respiratory Tract
Trachea:
Also known as the windpipe this is the tube which carries
air from the throat into the lungs. It ranges from 20-25mm
in diameter and 10-16cm in length. The inner membrane
of the trachea is covered in tiny hairs called cilia, which
catch particles of dust which we can then remove through
coughing.
Bronchi:
The trachea divides into two tubes called bronchi, one
entering the left and one entering the right lung. The left
bronchi is narrower, longer and more horizontal than the
right. Once inside the lung the bronchi split several ways.

Bronchioles:
Bronchi continue to divide and become bronchioles, very
narrow tubes, less than 1 millimeter in diameter. There is no
cartilage within the bronchioles and they lead to alveolar sacs.
Alveoli:
Individual hollow cavities. Alveoli have very thin walls which
permit the exchange of gases Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide.
They are surrounded by a network of capillaries, into which the
inspired gases pass. There are approximately 3 million alveoli
within an average adult lung.
Diaphragm:
The diaphragm is a broad band of muscle which sits
underneath the lungs.

8.5 Types of Respiration
External Respiration :Exchange of gases
between the alveoli and the blood
Refers to a process of inhaling oxygen from the air into the
lungs and expelling carbon dioxide from the lungs to the
air. Exchange of gases both in and out of the blood
occurs simultaneously.
Internal Respiration : Exchange of gases
between the blood and tissue cells
Also known as tissue respiration/cellular respiration refers
to a metabolic process in which oxygen is released to
tissues or living cells and carbon dioxide is absorbed by
the blood. Once inside the cell the oxygen is used for
producing energy in the form of ATP or adenosine
triphosphate.

8.5 Functions of Respiratory system
 Respiratory System:
Oxygen Delivery System. The primary function of
the respiratory system is to supply the blood with oxygen
in order for the blood to deliver oxygen to all parts of the
body. The respiratory system does this through breathing.
When we breathe, we inhale oxygen and exhale carbon
dioxide. If this supply of oxygen is suspended for more
than 4 minutes , it can be fatal .
 In addition to air distribution and gas exchange, the
respiratory system filters, warms, and humidifies the air you
breathe. Organs in the respiratory system also play a role
in speech and the sense of smell.

8.5 Mechanism of Respiration
The act of Breathing :
The act of breathing has two stages –
Inhalation and exhalation
 Inhalation – the intake of air into the lungs through expansion
of chest volume.
 Exhalation – the expulsion of air from the lungs through
contraction of chest volume.
 Inhalation and exhalation involves muscles:
 Diaphragm and rib muscles are constantly contracting
and relaxing (approximately 16 times per minute), thus causing
the chest cavity to increase and decrease.

The act of Breathing :Inhalation and exhalation


Inhalation Exhalation
The intake of air into the lungs
through expansion of chest
volume.
The expulsion of air from the lungs
through contraction of chest
volume
Inhalation and exhalation involves muscles
Diaphragm and rib muscles are constantly contracting and
relaxing (approximately 16 times per minute), thus causing
the chest cavity to increase and decrease.

Inspiration (Inhalation) :
 During Inhalation – the muscles contract:
Contraction of the diaphragm muscle – causes the
diaphragm to flatten, thus enlarging the chest cavity.
Contraction of the rib muscles – causes the ribs to
rise, thus increasing the chest volume.
The chest cavity expands, thus reducing air pressure
and causing air to be passively drawn into the lungs.
Air passes from the high pressure outside the lungs to
the low pressure inside the lungs.

Expiration (Exhalation) :
 During exhalation – the muscles relax:
The muscles are no longer contracting, they are
relaxed.
The diaphragm curves and rises, the ribs descend –
and chest volume decreases.
The chest cavity contracts thus increasing air pressure
and causing the air in the lungs to be expelled
through the upper respiratory tract.
Air passes from the high pressure in the lungs to the
low pressure in the upper respiratory tract.

Organ Structure Functions
Nasal
cavity
– lined with capillaries
– lined with cilia
– warms, moistens and filters air
entering the respiratory system
Pharynx – body cavity that connects the
nasal and oral cavities with
the larynx and esophagus
– path that connects nasal cavity
to the trachea
Epiglottis – a tiny flap of connective tissue – prevents food from entering the
trachea
– prevents air from entering the
stomach when breathing in
Larynx – made up of cartilage – to produce sound for
communication
– contains the vocal cords
Trachea – a hollow tube surrounded by
tough, flexible C- shaped
cartilage rings
– lined with cilia
– lined with mucus secreting
cells
– allows air to pass from the
pharynx into the lungs
– cartilage rings prevent the
trachea from collapsing

Organ Structure Functions
Lung – composed of the bronchi, bronchioles
and alveoli
– the main organs of
the respiratory system
Bronchi – branch out of the trachea
– hollow tubes surrounded by cartilage
rings
– lined with cilia and mucus secreting cells
– to carry the air into
the lungs
Bronchio
les
– branch out of the bronchi
– large bronchioles secrete mucous and
are lined with cilia
– to carry air to the
alveoli
Alveoli – clusters of tiny hollow air sacs; the ends of
the smallest bronchioles
– surrounded by an extensive network of
capillaries
– very small structures with very high
surface area
– are the sites of gas
exchange

8.6 Introduction to Circulatory System &
Structure of Heart
 The circulatory system is a network that carries blood
throughout the body.
 All animals except the simplest kinds have some type of
circulatory system.
 The human circulatory system supplies the cells of the
body with the food and oxygen needed to survive.
 At the same time, it carries carbon dioxide and other
wastes away from the cells.
 The circulatory system also helps regulate body
temperature and carries substances that protect the body
from disease
 The system transports chemical substances called
hormones, which help regulate the activities of various
parts of the body.

8.6 Heart
Is a hollow, muscular organ that pumps blood
Consists of two pumps that lie side by side.
These pumps relax when taking in blood and
contract as they send out blood.
The left side of the heart is a stronger pump than
the right side
The stronger pump receives blood from the lungs
and sends it to cells throughout the body
The weaker pump receives blood from the cells
throughout the body and sends the blood to the
lungs.

Let’s take a look at the
Heart at work
See the difference in the HEART rate
when we are resting, in school, or
playing sports?

8.6 Location of the Heart
Located in the thorax
between the lungs and
above the central
depression of
diaphragm
 240 gm to 320 gm
Situated closer to the
front of the chest than
to the back and
slightly to the left side

The Human HEART has
4 Chambers
Right Atrium to the
Right Ventricle
then to the
Left Atrium
to the
Left Ventricle
Blood Flows down
Through the:
Blood Flow
controlled
by Valves

8.6 Function of the Heart
1. Circulation of blood throughout the body
2. Systemic circulation : carries oxygenated
blood away from the heart to the body,
and returns deoxygenated blood back to
the heart
3. Pulmonary circulation: carries
deoxygenated blood away from the
heart, to the lungs, and returns
oxygenated (oxygen-rich) blood back to
the heart.
4. Systemic circulation has greater force
than pulmonary circulation

8.6 Systemic Circulation
Blood comes out from left ventricle by Aorta
Blood passes through small arteries which carry
the blood to various part of the body
Arteries are divided and sub-divided until the
arterioles are reached
Arterioles have narrow passage & perform two
functions
 Maintenance of arterial blood pressure
 Regulation of flow of blood into capillaries
Capillaries have thin walls so that exchange can
take place between plasma and interstitial fluid

8.6 Pulmonary Circulation
From right Auricle the blood passes into right
Ventricle
Right Ventricle contracts , Blood goes into
Pulmonary Artery
 Pulmonary Artery is divided to carry the blood to left and
right lung
 In Lungs, Artery breaks into smaller arteries to arterioles to
pulmonary capillaries.
Blood takes O2 and leaves CO2
Pulmonary capillaries unite until Veins are formed
Blood comes back to Heart by four Pulmonary
Veins to left auricle

There are 3 types of
blood vessels:
•Arteries (red)
•Veins (blue)
•Capillaries
Blood travels through tubes called
blood vessels

VEINSare blood vessels that
carry used blood back to the heart.
The heart sends the blood
back to
the lungs
to pick up
more oxygen.

Aorta
The AORTA within the
heart is the largest ARTERY
The Aorta
takes blood with
oxygen
and
delivers it to every
part of our body.
Arteries are blood vessels that carry
blood AWAY from the heart.

Capillaries
Are the smallest blood vessels
They branch off from every
Vein and Artery.

When we breathe in,
our lungs take
In OXYGEN.
The oxygen passes into
our blood through our
blood vessels.

8.6 FUNCTIONS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
System consists of Heart, Arteries, Veins &
Capillaries. Heart works like a pump & circulate the
blood throughout the body. Blood circulation
unites all organic systems of the body in a
functional unit. Functions are :
1. To transport nutrients and O2 to the body cells
2. To transport CO2 from the cells to the lungs
3. To transport hormones, vitamins, minerals and other
substances of immunity to various parts of the body
4. To transport heat ie thermo-regulation
5. Appropriate distribution of blood to various parts
of the body

8.7 Oxygen Debt & Second Wind
Oxygen Debt :
The additional oxygen that must be taken
into the body after vigorous exercise to
restore all systems to their normal states is
called Oxygen Debt.

Oxygen Debt :
After anaerobic activity, oxygen is needed to
neutralize the lactic acid. This is called an oxygen
debt. It is paid after exercise.
The oxygen reacts with the lactic acid to form co2
& water.
Rapid & deep breathing is required for a short
period after high intensity exercise in order to
repay the debt.
This also helps to remove the carbon dioxide
which accumulates in the blood during intense
exercise.

Second wind
Second wind :
1. The return of relative ease of
breathing after the initial exhaustion
that occurs during physical exertion
2. Restored energy or strength.
 a person's ability to breathe freely during exercise, after
having been out of breath.
 a new strength or energy to continue something that is an
effort.

Symptoms prior to Second Wind :
1. Breathlessness
2. Pain in Chest
3. Headache
4. Pain in the muscles, which are involved in
that activity
5. Feeling of inability in physical efficiency
6. Neuro – muscular coordination start
diminishing
7. Feeling of dry throat

Changes in Our Body due to Second Wind :
1. Breathlessness Disappears
a) Rate of respiration becomes less
b) O2 supply becomes normal
c) CO2 accumulation reduced

2. Muscles become normal
a) Pain in the muscles disappears
b) Muscles swelling diminish
c) Muscles temperature increased
3. Change in Blood Circulation System

3. Change in Blood Circulation System
a) Waste products like lactic acid and uric acid
accumulate in less quantity
b) Supply of oxygen increases
c) Heart rate reduces

Chapter 8 Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology

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Chapter 8 Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology