Theories of Motivation - Instincts Theories, Drive – Reduction Theories, Arousal Theory, Incentive Theory, Opponent-Process Theory, Cognitive Theories - Expectancy-Value Theory, Cognitive Dissonance Theory, Attribution Theory, Equity Theory, Social Cognitive Theory - Maslow’s Hierarchy, ERG Theory, Motivation-Hygiene Theory, Theory X and Theory Y, Acquired Needs Theory, Neo-Freudian Theories - Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler, Analytical Psychology Of Carl J Jung, Carl Rogers, Gestalt theory, Kurt Koffka Theory, Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development, Karen Horney – Neurotic Relationships, Harry Stack-Sullivan – Selective Inattention, Erich Fromm – Choice of Freedom, The Social Unconscious Orientations, Type A,B, C and D Personalities, Behavioural, Cognitive And Humanistic Perspectives, Temperamental Theories of Personality - Gordon Allport, Ancient Theories of Temperament, Hierarchy of Traits And Super-Factors, Self-report Measures, Projective Techniques

1. Motivation, Cognitive,
Social Cognitive and Personality
Theories
M. VIJAYALAKSHMI
M.SC., M.PHIL. (LIFE SCIENCES), M.ED., M.PHIL. (EDUCATION),
NET (EDUCATION), PGDBI
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR (FORMER),
SRI RAMAKRISHNA MISSION VIDYALAYA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION (AUTONOMOUS),
COIMBATORE – 641020.

2. Motivation
 Motivation refers to the dynamics of behavior,
the way in which actions are initiated,
sustained, directed, and terminated.

3. Model of Motivation
NEED
DRIVE
RESPONSE
GOAL
NEED SATISFACTION

4. TYPES OF MOTIVES
 Primary Motives - Biological needs
 Secondary Motives - Learned and not innate
Stimulus Motives - Stimulation and Information
(curiosity, exploration, and manipulation)

5. Theories of Motivation
Instincts Theories
 Inborn patterns of behaviour (Bird building nest)
 William McDougall – Primary Instincts – 18 instincts
 Others – 5759 instincts

6. Drive –Reduction Theories
 If our stimulation and activity levels become too
high, we try to reduce them. (Homeostatic theories)
 2 types of drives
 Primary drives – innate drives
 Secondary drives – learned drives

7. Drive – Reduction Theories
Equilibrium
Need State
(Biological)
Drive
(Psychological)
Behaviour
(reduces the
need and drive)

8. Arousal Theory
 If the levels of stimulation and activity are too low, we will try to
increase them by seeking stimulation
 Drive – reduction model - If the levels of stimulation and activity
are too high, we will try to reduce them

9. Incentive Theory
 Reinforcement
 Properties of the external stimuli are considered as
important to account for our motivation

10. Opponent-Process Theory
 Stimuli that initially produce increases in arousal later
produce an opposite effect, calming the reaction in the
nervous system
 Similarly, stimuli that initially produce decreases in
arousal later produce increase on arousal.

11. Cognitive Theories
Expectancy-Value Theory
Two types of Cognition – Expectation & Value
Good score & good job

12. Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Two ways – Oscillation
Discrepancy between Belief and Action

13. Attribution Theory
Individual tries to explain success or failure of self and
others by making certain “attributions”
Attributions – Internal or external
It could be something that we have control or something
over which we do not have control
Example - Ability and Effort

14. Expectancy Theory
Motivation – product of three factors
Expectancy, Instrumentation and Value
Three must be present in order for motivation to occur
Motivation = Perceived probability of Succes (Expectancy) X
Connection of Success and Reward Instrumentality) X Value of
obtaining Goal (Valance, Value)
Not aware about the value (X Activity)

15. Equity Theory
 Equity – when people consider their compensation equal to
compensation received by others who perform similar work
 Inputs – Education, Experience, Effort and Ability
 Outputs – Pay, Recognition, Benefits and Promotion
 Inequity – when the ratio is out of balance
 Effort and out come - Balance

16. Social Cognitive Theory
Maslow’s Hierarchy
 Physical Needs
 Safety Needs
 Love Needs
 Self Esteem Needs
 Self Actualization Needs

17. ERG Theory
Existence Needs – Physical well-being
Relatedness Needs – Satisfactory relationships with
others
Growth (Personal) Needs – Human potential and
personal growth and increased competence

18. Motivation-Hygiene Theory
 People work for two reasons – Physical deprivation and
achievement
 Hygiene factor – One’s desire to avoid deprivation –
results- physical and emotional discomfort
 Motivators factor - Positive satisfaction – sense of
growth

19. Theory X and Theory Y
 Don’t like and Like the job
 Autocratic Leaders – Theory X
 Democratic Leaders – Theory Y

20. Acquired Needs Theory
Need for Achievement – accomplish something
difficult, attain a high standard of success and
complex tasks
Need for Affiliation – form close relationships, avoid
conflict, establish warm relationships
Need for Power – control others, be responsible for
others, have authority over others

21. Social Cognitive Theory
 Primary Motives
Thirst
Hunger
Sex Drive
 Secondary Motives
Need for Achievement
Need for Affiliation
Need for Power

22. CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY
 The literal meaning of personality is derived from the Latin word
persona, the mask used by actors in the Roman theatre for
changing their facial make-up.
 After putting on the mask, audience expected the person to perform
a role in a particular manner. It did not, however, mean that the
person enacting the given role necessarily possessed those qualities.

23. Personality-Definition
 In psychological terms, Personality refers to our characteristic
ways of responding to individuals and situations.
 Personality refers to unique and relatively stable qualities that
characterise an individual’s behaviour across different
situations over a period of time.

24. Personality-related Terms
 Temperament: Biologically based characteristic way of reacting (innate)
 Trait: Stable, persistent and specific way of behaving
 Disposition: Tendency of a person to react to a given situation in a
particular way. (Role)
 Character: The overall pattern of regularly occurring behaviour.
 Habit: Over learned modes of behaving.
 Values: Goals and ideals that are considered important and worthwhile to
achieve. (Cognitive and Emotional factors)

25. Psychodynamic Approach
 This view owes largely to the contributions of Sigmund Freud. He was a
physician, and developed this theory in the course of his clinical
practice. Early in his career he used hypnosis to treat people with
physical and emotional problems. He noted that many of his patients
needed to talk about their problems, and having talked about them, they
often felt better.
 Freud used free association (a method in which a person is asked to
openly share all the thoughts, feelings and ideas that come to her/his
mind), dream analysis, and analysis of errors to understand the internal
functioning of the mind.

26. Levels of Consciousness
 Freud’s theory considers the sources and consequences of emotional
conflicts and the way people deal with these. In doing so, it visualises
the human mind in terms of three levels of consciousness.
 The first level is conscious, which includes the thoughts, feelings and
actions of which people are aware. The second level is pre/subconscious,
which includes mental activity of which people may become aware only
if they attend to it closely. The third level is unconscious, which includes
mental activity that people are unaware of.

27. Psychoanalysis
 Freud developed a therapeutic procedure, called Psychoanalysis.
The basic goal of psychoanalytic therapy is to bring the
repressed unconscious materials to consciousness, thereby
helping people to live in a more self-aware and integrated
manner.

28. Structure of Personality
 According to Freud’s theory, the primary structural elements of
personality are three,
 ID – Pleasure principle, (Life and Death instinct) – Immediate
gratification – Libido .
 EGO – Reality Principle, and
 Superego – Moral Principle
 Anxiety – Real, Neurotic and Moral

29. Ego Defence Mechanisms
(Better protect or defend ourself)
 Denial – Refusal to accept reality
 Regression – Reversion to the early stage
 Dissociation – Find another representation
 Projection – Misattribution of the person
 Reaction Formation – Behaving in opposite way
 Repression – Unconscious blocking
 Displacement – Boss-Wife or Dog
 Rationalization – Putting something into different (Justifying – not valued)
 Sublimation – Acting in a film

30. Stages of Personality Development
Psychosexual Stages
 Oral – Thumb sucking, Breast Feeding…
 Anal – Toilet training (urination and defecation)
 Phallic – Oedipus and Electra Complex
 Latency – Continue till puberty (Physical and Sexual urge)
 Genital – Puberty to till Death (Narcissistic)

31. Neo-Freudian Theories
Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler
Birth order – First born children, Middle born
children and youngest children

32. Analytical Psychology Of Carl J Jung
Collective Unconscious – Archetypes
– animus/anima, shadow and self

33. Carl Rogers
Congruence (Balance)
Self-actualization
– Self-worth,
- Self-image and
- Ideal self

34. Incongruence Neurosis
Actualization Society
Organismic Valuing Conditions of Worth
Positive Regard Conditional Positive Regard
Positive Self-Regard Conditional Positive Self-Regard
Real Self Ideal Self

35. Allport’s Trait Theory of Personality
 Cardinal Traits – Honesty, sadism, self-
service
 Central Traits – 5 – 10 traits – shyness,
honesty and intelligence
 Secondary Traits – related attitudes and
preferences

36. Gestalt theory (Wertheimer)
 Proximity – elements tend to be grouped together according to their
nearness
 Similarity – items similar in some respect tend to be grouped together
 Closure – items are grouped if they tend to complete some entity and
 Simplicity – items will be organized into simple figures according to
symmetry, regularity and smoothness

37. Kurt Koffka Theory
 Human mind - Individual Sensations and experiences –
meaningful wholes
 Infants – whole; older – learn to discriminate individual objects
 Sensorimotor learning – hot – touch – learn
 Learn by imitation
 Highest type of learning – ideational learning – use of language
 Children learn - Objects have names

38. Erik Erikson
Stages of Psychosocial Development
 Trust Vs Mistrust (Birth to 1 year)
 Autonomy Vs. Shame And Doubt (1 to 3 years)
 Initiative Vs. Guilt (3 to 6 years)
 Industry Vs. Inferiority (6 to Puberty)
 Identity Vs. Role Confusion (13 to 18 years)
 Intimacy Vs. Isolation ( 18 to 40 years)
 Generativity Vs. Stagnation (41 to 60years)
 Ego Integrity Vs. Despair (61 to death)

39.  Karen Horney – Neurotic Relationships
 Moving Toward People, (Dependent)
 Moving Against People, and (Aggressive)
 Moving Away From People (Isolation)
 Harry Stack-Sullivan – Selective Inattention (Attribution of the personal nature)
 Personifications – Bad me, Good me and Not me… (Better
understanding for him/herself and their world)

40. • Erich Fromm – Choice of Freedom
Families – Symbolic (One person will dominate) and Withdrawing
(Orthodox)Families
The Social Unconscious Orientations (5 personality type)
Receptive orientation – Wait for success
Exploitative orientation – Aggressive
Hoarding orientation – Withdraw (Possession)
Marketing orientation – Don’t bother
Productive orientation – Importance to others

41. Type A,B, C and D
 Friedman an Rosenman have classified individuals into
Type-A and Type-B personalities. The two researchers were
trying to identify psychosocial risk factors when they
discovered these types. People characterised by

42.  Type-A personality
 seem to possess high motivation, lack patience, feel short
of time, be in a great hurry, and feel like being always
burdened with work. Such people find it difficult to slow
down and relax. People with Type-A personality are more
susceptible to problems like hypertension and coronary
heart disease (CHD).

43. Continuation….
Morris has suggested a Type-C personality, which
is prone to cancer. Individuals characterised by this
personality are cooperative, unassertive and patient.
They suppress their negative emotions (e.g., anger),
and show compliance to authority.

44. More recently, a Type-D personality has
been suggested, which is characterised
by proneness to depression. (Worry,
Social inhibition, irritable, distressed)

45. BEHAVIOURAL, COGNITIVE,
AND
HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVES

46. The Behavioral Perspective
Shaping - Target behaviour – reinforcement
Freedom and Dignity – Rejected ( Good and Bad –
Accepted by the Society) - Homunculus

47. Social Cognitive Perspective
Bandura’s Observational Learning (BOBO doll)
Observational Learning, or Modeling
Self-Regulation - Self-observation, judgment and
self- response

48. Cont…
Humanistic Perspective
Maslow’s Theory Of Need Hierarchy - Meta-
needs and meta-pathologies
Carl Rogers – Incongruence, Empathy &
Unconditional Positive Regards

49. TEMPERAMENTAL THEORIES
OF PERSONALITY

50. Gordon Allport
 The Proprium - The self
 Traits or Dispositions - Unique
 Psychological Maturity – Mental Health &
 Functional Autonomy – Live for Present

51. Ancient Theories Of Temperament
The Four Humours
 Sanguine type is cheerful and optimistic
Choleric type is a quick and hot temper
Phlegmatic type is characterized by slowness,
laziness, and dullness
Melancholic type temperament tends to be sad,
even depressed, and is pessimistic.

52. Hierarchy Of Traits And Super-Factors
Eysenck Personality Theory
Extraversion – Introversion
Neuroticism – Emotional Stability
Psychoticism – Socialization
 Cattell’s Sixteen Personality Factors
The Five-Factor Theory – OCEAN
Three Factors Model & Five Factor Model

53. Self-report Measures
 The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
 This inventory is widely used as a test in personality assessment. Hathaway and
McKinley developed this test as a helping tool for psychiatric diagnosis, but the
test has been found very effective in identifying varieties of psychopathology. Its
revised version is available as MMPI-2.
 It consists of 567 statements. The subject has to judge each statement as ‘true’ or
‘false’ for her/ him. The test is divided into 10 subscales, which seek to diagnose
hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviate, masculinity-
femininity, paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, mania and social introversion

54. Self-report Measures
 Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)
 Developed by Eysenck this test initially assessed two dimensions of personality,
called introverted-extraverted and emotionally stable-emotionally unstable.
These dimensions are characterised by 32 personality traits. Later on, Eysenck
added a third dimension, called psychoticism. It is linked to psychopathology that
represents a lack of feeling for others, a tough manner of interacting with people,
and a tendency to defy social conventions.

55. Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire
(16 PF)
 This test was developed by Cattell. On the basis of his studies,
he identified a large set of personality descriptors, which were
subjected to factor analysis to identify the basic personality
structure.

56. Projective Techniques
 Projective techniques were developed to assess unconscious motives
and feelings. These techniques are based on the assumption that a
less structured or unstructured stimulus or situation will allow the
individual to project her/his feelings, desires and needs on to that
situation. These projections are interpreted by experts.

57. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Uma Chaudhury’s

59. The Rorschach Inkblot Test
Hermann Rorschach

61. Sentence Completion Test
 This test makes use of a number of incomplete sentences. The starting part
of the sentence is first presented and the subject has to provide an ending
to the sentence. It is held that the type of endings used by the subjects
reflect their attitudes, motivation and conflicts. The test provides subjects
with several opportunities to reveal their underlying unconscious
motivations. A few sample items of a sentence completion test are given
below.
1. My father——————————————.
2. My greatest fear is —————————.
3. The best thing about my mother is ——————————.
4. I am proud of ————————————.

62. Draw-a-Person Test
 It is a simple test in which the subject is asked to draw a person on a sheet of paper. A
pencil and eraser is provided to facilitate drawing. After the completion of the drawing,
the subject is generally asked to draw the figure of an opposite sex person.
 Finally, the subject is asked to make a story about the person as if s/he was a character in
a novel or play. Some examples of interpretations are as follows:
Omission of facial features suggests that the person tries to evade a highly conflict-
ridden interpersonal relationship.
Graphic emphasis on the neck suggests lack of control over impulses.
 Disproportionately large head suggests organic brain disease and preoccupation with
headaches.