Research_and_Development_in_the_Solar_Re

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The International Journal of
Environmental
Sustainability
onsustainability.com
VOLUME 9
__________________________________________________________________________
Research and Development in the Solar
Research Facilities Unit of the Weizmann
Institute of Science
Past, Present, and Future
MICHAEL EPSTEIN, IRINIA VISHNEVETSKY, AKIBA SEGAL, RACHAMIM RUBIN, AND DORON LIEBERMAN

THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
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First published in 2014 in Champaign, Illinois, USA
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The International Journal of Environmental Sustainability
Volume 9, 2014, www.onsustainability.com, ISSN 2325-1077
© Common Ground, Michael Epstein, Irina Vishnevetsky, Akiba Segal, Rachamim Rubin,
Doron Lieberman, All Rights Reserved. Permissions: cg-support@commongroundpublishing.com
Research and Development in the Solar Research
Facilities Unit of the Weizmann Institute of
Science: Past, Present, and Future
Michael Epstein, Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel
Irina Vishnevetsky, Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel
Akiba Segal, Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel
Rachamim Rubin, Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel
Doron Lieberman, Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel
Abstract: R&D on implementation of concentrated solar energy plays an essential role in environmental sustainability
development. An experimental Solar Tower, paired with a heliostat field, was constructed at the Weizmann Institute of
Science (WIS) campus in 1987 and serves as the main center for R&D of concentrated solar technologies in Israel. The
paper describes the features of the Solar Facilities and the projects that were successfully realized during its 25 years of
operation. These projects have been supported by the European Commission and Israeli Ministries of Energy and
Industry, including experimental systems for zinc oxide carboreduction, methane reforming, solar energy storage, solar
pumped lasers, methane cracking, pressurized air heating for solarized Brayton cycle and different thermo-chemical
redox cycles for water splitting, and hydrogen production at atmospheric pressure, as well as under vacuum conditions.
This paper also describes the main development in solar concentrating optics, including the worldwide first working
beam-down facility based on the Cassegrain reflector principle. Several commercial scale Solar Towers, which were
built outside Israel during the last years, were based extensively on results from the WIS Solar Research Facilities Unit
(SRFU). Unfortunately, the future of the WIS Solar Tower’s activities is unclear because of the recent decision by the
Weizmann Institute administration to change the use of the Solar Tower specific building and turn it into a National
Center for Personalized Medicine.
Keywords: Concentrated Solar Energy, Tower, Heliostat, Field, Concentrator
Introduction
mplementation of highly concentrated solar power (CSP) using Solar Towers began in 1976
when the first Tower was built in Albuquerque, New Mexico. After that, experimental Solar
Towers were built in Japan (NIO), Spain (Almeria), France (Targassonne) and in 1983, the
proposal to build an experimental Solar Tower in Israel’s Weizmann Institute of Science (WIS)
was accepted.
This Tower has been in operation since 1988 and is among the most advanced concentrated
solar research laboratories in the world. It was created under the initiative of the eminent Israeli
scientist Prof. Israel Dostrovsky (1918-2010) and supported by Canadian sponsors. WIS Tower
comprises a field of 64 multi-faceted mirrors (heliostats), which track the sun individually and
reflect the light onto a selected target located on five experimental levels of a Solar Tower. Light
can be reflected toward any or all of these testing stations, allowing a number of experiments to
be carried out simultaneously. The heliostats can also illuminate the world’s first working beam-
down facility based on the Cassegrainian reflector principle attached to the west side of the
Tower.
This is the only Solar Tower facility in the world to be located on the campus of a research
and academic institute and to be solely dedicated to scientific work.
This paper describes the infrastructure, the main research projects and their results realized
in the past and those currently under development.
I

Description of the Infrastructure
The Solar Research Facilities Unit (SRFU), see Figures 1-4, has been operating since 1988. It is a
sophisticated solar tower with a north field of 64 heliostats, 56m2
(7x8 meters) each, which, on a
bright day, can collect about 2.8 MW of solar radiation in total. The 54-meter tower has 5
vertical experimental levels, 4 indoor and one on the roof, used when special safety precautions
are required for tests such as large scale hydrogen or syngas production.
Figure 1: General view of the WIS Solar Research Facility Unit with the Beam Down optics
Figure 2: Fragment of the field with individual heliostat tracking
Two of the indoor experimental levels have three horizontal test stations for experiments in
the scale of 1-100 kW that can be operated in parallel since they are viewing different parts of the
heliostat field (Figures 5, 6 and 7). Examples of optical schemes of the mentioned stations are
presented in Figure 9. The other 3 experimental levels can be exposed to the entire power of the
field of (Figure 8), but normally experiments up to maximum 1 MW are approved to be
conducted in order to enable several experiments in parallel.

EPSTEIN ET AL.: RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE SOLAR RESEARCH FACILITIES UNIT
In addition, the WIS Solar Tower has a unique 0.7 MW beam-down facility, not existing in
any other solar research facility in the world. These unique optics (Figure 10) include a tower
reflector shaped as a section of hyperboloid revolution with one sheet having a reflective surface
area of about 75 m2
(Figures 3 and 4) and a ground level secondary compound parabolic
concentrator (CPC) which has 2.2 meter entrance diameter, a 5 meter height and is capable of
enhancing the incoming radiation by a magnification factor of 16 providing power of 0.5 MW at
an average concentration of about 4000 (Figures 11 and 12). This secondary concentrator which
was built in 1999 remains the biggest of its kind.
These unique optics were used for testing a solarized gas turbine and more recently to
demonstrate a 350 kW process of carbo-reduction of ZnO in the frame work of the
EC/FP7/SOLZINC project (Fig.13). These optics are specifically suitable for tests where solid
and solid gas reactants are involved.
Figures 3 and 4: Left: Tower with Beam down reflector on one side. Right: upper part of the Tower: 1-4 – indoor
experimental levels; 5– outdoor experimental level; 6- hyperboloid reflector; 7 – experimental space housing with the
secondary compound parabolic concentrator (CPC) and the receiver.
Each of the experimental levels and the test stations are served with basic infrastructure
services such as cooling water, compressed air, instrumentation air, vacuum, and emergency
cooling among others, which are supplied from central infrastructure systems. There are full
communication channels with the central control room to monitor and conduct the tests.
Specific control of each test and its experimental data gathering can be done also at each of
the experimental levels which are equipped with dedicated control rooms (isolated and
conditioned). These rooms can accommodate the test data collection systems and their
computers. In the case of large experiments the central control room can accommodate up to
three different control consoles.

Figures 5, 6, 7 and 8: Representative experimental solar facilities (1 – parabolic dish, secondary concentrator; 2 –
compound parabolic concentrator (CPC); 3 –volumetric receivers); Up: 30 kW indoor reactor with concentrators capable
of 1700 sun; Middle up: 10 kW vacuum indoor reactor with concentrator of 5000 sun; Middle down: 30kW DIAPR
reactor with CPC of 2000 sun; Down: 350kW DLR outdoor foam reactor with CPC of 2000 Sun
Figure 9: Examples of optical schemes of indoor receivers
A special service is provided to calculate, design and fabricate the adequate concentrating
optics and specifically the secondary devices to meet each and every experimental requirement.
This is done by special computer codes and expertise developed at the SRFU.
Figure 10: Principle scheme of “Beam down” optic

Research Programs Including Projects Conducted at the SRFU
Our goal is to explore solar-driven physical, thermal and chemical processes enabling power
production as fuel alternatives primarily for the transportation sector and long-term energy
storage. Our research programs address the following topics demonstrated in appropriate
projects:
Solar Steam Production:
 Design, fabrication and construction of a 2-ton/h solar steam boiler, including
modeling of boiling and direct radiation profile, supported by the Israel Ministry of
Energy (1988-91).
 This project successfully demonstrated the concept of physical separation between
the boiling and superheating section for safe and efficient operation of a solar steam
generator.
Solar Electricity Production – Developing Cost Effective Ways for Environmentally
Clean, Solar-Driven Gas Turbines for Electricity Production:
 Development of the world’s first solar-operated Brayton cycle with gas turbine and
ceramic tubes solar receiver on a 500 kW scale, in collaboration with two Israeli
companies: Israel Electric Corp. Ltd and ORMAT (1987-93). First of its kind cavity
receiver with SiC tubes and solar heating of air at about 10 bars and 950°C.
 Development of an industrial scale solar Brayton cycle with a unique windowed
volumetric receiver and beam-down optics, in the framework of the CONSOLAR
project, supported by the MAGNET program of the Israel Ministry of Trade and
Industry (1995-2000).
 Development of Non-Isothermal High Temperature Solar Particle Receiver (1997-
2003). Tiny, micron size carbon particles were fluidized in a windowed solar
receiver to directly absorb concentrated solar radiation and heating efficiently the
fluidizing air.

Figures 11, 12 and 13: Left up: the world biggest solar compound parabolic concentrator (CPC), view from above; Right
up: side view; Down: the SOLZINC 350 kW reactor irradiated by the biggest CPC
Developing and Improving of Unique Secondary Solar Concentrators Including the
Beam-Down Reflective Tower Concept Capable of Moving the Solar Receiver from the
Top of the Tower to Ground Level:
 The Beam Down facilities were built as a part of the CONSOLAR project (1995-
2000) aiming at developing a large scale solarized Brayton combined cycle. The
large ground secondary concentrator was developed and constructed as a prototype
for large solar reformers and different solar reactors, e.g. in SOLZINC (2002-2006).
 Optimization of components for Secondary Concentrators, SFERA projects by
EC/FP7 (2009-2012).

Solar Pumped Laser Technology for Communication, Energy Transmission, and
Industrial Photo and Thermo Chemical Application:
 Solid state solar pumped lasers and amplifiers in collaboration with Rotem
Industries, Ben-Gurion University and Israel Atomic Energy Commission, Soreq
Nuclear Research Center (1989-2002) have been developed under the support of the
Israeli Ministry of Industry & Trade in the frame of the CONSOLAR Program
(1995-2000).
 Solar pumped dimer gas lasers and amplifiers (1996-2001).
Development of a Computer Program for the Design of a Solar Field and Heliostats Sun
Tracking Supported by the Israel Ministry of National Infrastructures:
 Programs for design and optical optimization of solar heliostats fields (1994-96).
 Closed loop control with dynamic corrections for individual heliostats (1996-2000).
 Continuous tracking of a heliostats by integrated motor speed control (1996-2000).
Solar Thermo-Chemistry Including:
Tubular Reformer for Closed Loop Operation
 Design a tubular reformer for closed loop operation as a chemical heat pipe for the
transportation and storage of solar energy in chemical form, supported by the Israel
Ministry of Science and Technology (1993-96).
Solar Tower Technology for Use at The Dead Sea Works
 Survey of potential industrial applications of the solar tower technology for use at
the Dead Sea Works, supported by the Israel Ministry of National Infrastructures
(1994-96).
Hydrogen Production
Production of a clean and efficient fuel using solar energy including: (i) hydrocarbon reforming,
(ii) methane decomposition, and (iii) solar thermo-electrochemical dissociation of water at high
temperatures:
 Development of catalysts for methane steam and CO2 reforming in tubular reactors
placed inside a solar cavity receiver, supported by the Israel Ministry of Energy and
Infrastructure (1990-94). The catalyst is a key element in solar reforming to avoid
carbon deposition during the daily startup heating and shutdown. A ruthenium on
stabilized alumina substrate was successfully developed.
 Development of a gas-gas solar volumetric reactor, supported by the Israel Ministry
of National Infrastructures (2000-2006). This unique windowed reformer was based
on the concept of the volumetric air receiver developed previously during the
CONSOLAR project.
The ceramic needle configuration was coated with the catalyst and the flow
dynamics were matched to obtain maximum conversion of methane to syngas.
 Development of a catalyst for solar reforming of methane directly illuminated by
concentrated solar energy in a windowed reformer with foam absorber for 850°C
operation was accomplished in the framework of SOLASYS project, supported by

European Commission EC/PF4 (1997-2001) and further developed for higher
temperatures up to 1050°C in the frame of the SOLREF project supported by the
EC/PF6 (2004-2010). In this project, a large scale reactor (350 kW solar inputs)
was tested at the WIS Solar Tower.
 SOLHYCARB project on solar thermal splitting of methane to hydrogen and solid
carbon in the form of nano-particles was supported by the EC/PF6 (2006-2010).
Biomass Gasification
Processes to convert biomass to gaseous fuel were developed:
 Development of a gas-solid solar volumetric reactor for gasification of solid
carbonaceous materials, supported by the Israel Ministry of National Infrastructures
(2000-2008).
 Biofuels from wet organic waste by solar super-critical water gasification (SCWG)
supported by the Israel Ministry of National Infrastructures (2009-20011).
Solar Reduction of Metal Oxides
Solar reduction of metal oxides, for example, the production of zinc from zinc oxide, for
developing a clean process to use zinc in fuel cells (zinc/air battery) and for the production of
hydrogen through the hydrolysis of the zinc metal. Additional activity in this direction is the
carbo-reduction of alumina to produce aluminum with the aid of solar energy under vacuum
conditions. Other metals under study are carboreduction of magnesia to magnesium and B2O3 to
boron and ZnO thermal decomposition:
 Production of hydrogen and zinc using solar carbothermal reduction of ZnO was
supported by the Israel Ministry of National Infrastructures (1996-99).
 This activity was continued in the framework of the SOLZINC project on large
scale solar production of zinc from its oxide by reduction with wood charcoal. This
350 kW solar input was supported by the EC/PF5 (2002-2006). The project
successfully demonstrated the production of about 50 kg/hr of zinc powder in
micron size suitable for direct implementation in Zn/Air battery. The zinc can be
also considered as thermo-chemical means for storage of solar energy and
indirectly, gasification of wood charcoal.
 Currently going on ENEXAL project is aimed at solar carboreduction of alumina to
produce metal aluminum is supported by the EC/FP7 (2010-2014).
Solar Energy Storage
Solar energy can be stored in thermal processes using phase change materials and also in reduced
metals:
 DISTOR project on solar thermal storage using phase change materials (PCM)
medium supported by the EC/PF6 (2004-2007).
 SOLZINC project by the EC/PF5 (2002-2006).
 SFERA by EC/FP7 (2009-2013).
 ENEXAL projects by EC/FP7 (2010-2014).

The Main Results and their Implementation
Solar Steam Receiver
The Solar steam receiver (Epstein et al.1991; Romero et al. 2002, 99) was completed and ran in
early 1989 as a first achievement of the WIS Solar Tower. The system was designed for 2 MW
input and had accumulated a total of 125 operational days and 500 hours of steam production.
Saturated steam was generated at 20 atm. and the nominal energy flux on the evaporating panel
was 300 kW per square meter.
Solar Electricity
Taking into account the potential higher efficiency of the solar electricity based on gas turbine
Brayton cycle or combined Bryton-Rankine gas-steam cycle (Kribus et al. 1998), R&D of solar
electricity production based on the gas turbine and gas receiver was conducted since 1987.
The first solar receiver was of SiC ceramic on a 500 kW scale (Epstein 1988). The second
was a DIAPR (Directly Irradiated Annular Pressurized Receiver) volumetric receiver that
withstands high pressure and high temperature. Its development started in 1990 (Karni et al.
1997) and air heating was obtained by heat exchange between the gas flow and ceramic pins
heated directly by concentrated solar radiation. This receiver is protected by two patents, the first
is the quartz window and the second is the ceramic heat exchange area. The receiver was tested at
17 Bars and the exit temperature was 12000
C. Few types of this receiver were built and tested
starting at a scale from 25kW up to 300kW. Currently, the company AORA creates a commercial
solar system based on this receiver that generates electricity using a micro-turbine (60-80 kW)
installed on a small tower. The third development was a high temperature non-isothermal solar
particle receiver (Bertocchi et al. 2004) that was fabricated and tested in 1999. In this receiver the
fluid gas contain low percentages of fine carbon particles. The particles were heated rapidly by
the solar radiation and transferred the energy to the fluid gas.
The concept of a Central Receiver for utilization of solar thermal power has long been
regarded as potentially the most promising option for concentrated solar (CS) energy utilization.
The basic typical plant comprises of mirror reflectors (heliostats) that collect, concentrate and
direct the solar radiation at a solar receiver on a high tower. A suitable thermal fluid flows
through the receiver, absorbs the solar energy and is heated to a high temperature. The heated
fluid could be used to run a turbine and generate electricity. This thermal cycle is
thermodynamically more efficient than any other solar plant configuration. Solar power plants of
a few megawatts of electricity (MWe) and to more than a hundred MWe are foreseen.
The higher the solar concentration, the higher the gas temperature and therefore higher
efficiency can be achieved. WIS and Rotem Industries have developed a unique receiver that
heats air to temperatures as high as 1300°C at 20 bar pressure. Furthermore, a unique Israeli
approach of using a Tower Reflector has been applied. The Tower Reflector concept, also called
the Beam Down concept (see below), moves the receiver from the tower and replaces it by a
reflector mirror, thus locating the receiver, the secondary concentrator, and the heavy power
generating block with its accessories on ground level. This is even more important for multi-
Megawatt plants where many receivers may be installed and could compensate the optic losses
on the extra reflector.
The High Temperature volumetric solar Receiver (HTR) was developed as part of a joint
project between WIS and Rotem Industries Ltd. during the early 1990's. A 50 kW prototype was
operated successfully at the solar tower facility at WIS, proving the feasibility of the high
temperature, high-pressure windowed solar receiver. During its operation it achieved air
temperature as high as 1200°C at 20 Bars pressure. The 50 kW receiver's successful operation
opened the road for the full-scale, 1 MW prototype and its demonstration plant.

The High Concentration Solar Receiver Demonstration Plant was built and constructed at the
WIS solar tower as a joint project of Rotem Industries, Ormat Industries, WIS and the Boeing
Company within the framework of the Israeli CONSOLAR, Thermal Consortium and the US -
Israel Science & Technology Foundation (USISTF). Solar tests were carried out successfully
throughout 2001 in order to demonstrate the feasibility of a large-scale central solar receiver for
future solar power plants limited only by the available WIS solar field power. Evaluation of the
solar field was carried out in 2004 using a specially built calorimeter.
Optical Simulation Programs
Since 1993, various optical simulation programs have been developed to increase the receiver’s
efficiency at high temperatures (more than 1100K), using Compound Parabolic Concentrators
(CPC) (Welford and Winston 1978) as secondary concentrators. The CPC has a large aperture
that collects primary concentrated solar energy and a small exit towards the receiver, which
magnifies the concentration and decreases the thermal losses. Until 1993 the concentrators were
developed for very high concentration but low power. The first CPC that was designed for 450
kW was built in WIS Solar Facilities Unit and was dedicated to be used together with a receiver
for chemical storage of solar energy. Both the receiver and the concentrator were designed and
constructed. In the design of this CPC were included such innovations as the approximation of
the parabolic profile by trapezoidal facets. It could to be used together with two windowed solar
volumetric receivers/reformers: The flexibility of this concentrator that could to be used with
these two receivers, having various apertures and various requirements, was also an innovation in
this domain.
New Concentrator
A new CPC has been designed in 1994 in order to enhance the concentration of solar energy in a
new type of receiver capable of concentrating more than 10000 suns and delivering power of
about 90 kW into a small aperture of 11cm diameter. It was built and named Two-Stage
Concentrator, producing a concentration of 11,000 suns with more than 90kW power. This two-
stage concentrator is further described by (Ries et al. 1997).
“Beam Down” Reflector
In 1995, the idea of the tower “beam down” reflector was introduced, with a hyperbolic mirror at
the aim point of the heliostats that reflects the rays down to the ground. Close to the ground, a
CPC is installed which collects the solar rays reflected by the hyperbolic mirror and concentrates
them into a solar receiver on the ground level. The construction of a pilot station for 1 MW
thermal power in WIS Solar Facilities was started at the beginning of 1996 in order to prove this
idea. Finally, a hyperbolic mirror of more than 70 m2
, composed of 850 trapezoidal facets (see
Figures 3 and 4) was designed and built and after more than 15 years remains the biggest optical
concentrator in the World (see Figures 11 and 12). The theoretical aspects connected with tower
reflectors have been published in a series of 13 papers as (Segal and Epstein 1996, 1997, 1998,
1999, 2000, 2004, 2008 and 2010; Ben-Zvi et al. 2009; Epstein and Segal 1998; Kribus et al.
1998). It should be mentioned that the success of the project depends on the precision and
accuracy of the optical design.
All the simulation models have been integrated together into a program package named
WISDOM (Weizmann Institute Solar Dedicated cOmprehensive Mastercode). The general
opinion of the scientific solar community is that this package, which is in continuous
improvement, is one of the powerful unitary packages currently existing for solar optical
modeling.

Secondary Concentrators
At the beginning of 2009, the European Commission started the SFERA project in the framework
of FP7 in order to promote the most important European research and technological development
infrastructures with the financial support of the European Union. WIS Solar Unit was a leader of
the task group engaged in developing the Secondary Concentrators component of this project.
The task was finished with remarkable success in September 2012.
Solar Pumped Lasers
As mentioned above, solar pumped laser technology can be applied for wireless power
transmission from space as well as free space optical communication, photo- and thermal
chemistry and other laser technology applications requiring high energy concentration such as
cutting, welding and surface treatment. Solar pumped lasers can be solid state or dimer gas
lasers, more promising for high power scaling.
Solid State Solar Pumped Laser
Solid state solar pumped lasers developed in the CONSOLAR program is described in detail in
(Lando et al. 1997) and focusing on the design, fabrication and testing of laser rods, passive and
active Q-switches and non-linear crystals. Numerical results concerning implemented
concentrated optic, power transmission, power output, spectral shape and other properties are
presented by (Benmair et al. 1990; Krupkin et al. 1992 and 1993; Lando et al. 1998, 1999, 2000;
Naftali et al. 1997, 1999, 2002; Pe’er et al. 1997; Rotem et al. 1997; Thompson et al. 1992).
Solar Pumped Dimmer Gas Lasers
To choose the best media for solar pumped dimmer gas lasers the absorption and excitation
spectrum of four dimmer vapors as S2, Se2, Bi2 and Te2 were evaluated and demonstrated. The
Te2 was found to be a more promising, tunable and powerful amplifier with a broad gain in the
visible range (Pe’er et al. 1999, 2000, 2001).
Closed Loop Control and Continuous Tracking of Heliostats
Software and required accessories for Closed Loop Control of heliostats using video cameras
were developed and tested (Kribus et al. 2004) as well as continuous tracking of heliostat (Kribus
et al. 2004) provided significantly more precise aiming of concentrated solar energy comparing
with stepwise tracking.
Thermo-chemical Processes
Methane Reforming
Developing of thermo-chemical processes started in 1988 from the kinetic measurement of
catalysts used for a commercial reformer. These catalysts could not survive high temperature and
were improved later together with the development of a new process for the catalyst application
on different ceramics configurations (Berman et al. 2005, 2006, 2007).
Based on the DIAPR configuration and the new catalyst a solar volumetric methane reformer
was built and tested (Rubin and Karni 2011). This reformer uses the DIAPR advantages as an
excellent heat exchanger to store the solar energy in chemicals.

The high temperature non-isothermal solar particles receiver also was tested as a reformer
(Klein et al. 2007). This reactor uses the advantages of the high heat exchange characteristic and
temperature to perform the reforming reaction without the catalyst.
Thermal Splitting of Methane to Hydrogen and Solid Carbon
Promising results were obtained during European SOLHYCARB project on solar thermal
splitting of methane to hydrogen and solid carbon in the form of nano-particles (Ozalp et al.
2009, 2010).
The Tornado Flow configuration for reactor window protection was applied here. This
method was developed earlier by our scientists (Kogan and Kogan 2002, 2003) and supported by
the Heineman Foundation for Research, Educational, Charitable and Scientific Purposes,
Rochester, NY, USA.
Gasification of Solid Carbonaceous Materials
Gas-solid solar volumetric reactor for gasification of solid carbonaceous materials to use as fuel
is described by (Adinberg 2004).
Processes of converting biomass (such as organic waste) to gaseous fuel were developed
using two main approaches. One is pyrolysis of solid organic waste dispersed in a medium of a
mixture of carbonate salts of sodium and potassium at the temperature range of 750-850°C. High
conversion to gaseous products comprising mainly H2, CO and CO2 was achieved with negligible
amount of char and no amount of tars. The second approach was gasification of wet biomass
waste, primarily from fermentation processes using super critical conditions of the water in the
waste. High conversion rates of cellulose and lingo-cellulosic parts of the waste to gaseous
products were achieved.
Solar Thermal Chemical Redox Cycles for Hydrogen Production
One of the more promising solar thermo chemical technologies is redox cycles for hydrogen
production. Hydrogen, the most plentiful element in the universe, is an attractive candidate for
becoming a pollution-free fuel of the future. However, nearly all hydrogen used today is
produced by means of expensive processes (e.g. electrolysis of water), or require combustion of
polluting fossil fuels. Moreover, storing and transporting hydrogen is difficult and costly. A new
solar technology tackles these problems by developing redox cycles on the base of different
metal oxides. With the help of concentrated sunlight, the oxide is heated in a solar reactor alone
or in the presence of wood charcoal as biomass source. The process reduces the oxide, releasing
oxygen or carbon monoxide respectively and creating gaseous metal, which is then condensed
into powder. Metal powder can later react with water in exothermic hydrolysis reaction to
produce hydrogen in any place on demand. The hydrogen can be used as fuel, and metal oxide is
recycled back to metal in the solar plant. Numerous tests were performed in WIS Solar Facilities
with different metal oxides and different metal hydrolysis reactions (Vishnevetsky et al. 2005,
2006, 2008, 2010; Vishnevetsky and Epstein 2007, 2009; Epstein et al. 2010). Based on our test
results and other results which can be found in literature, it is possible to conclude that the main
parameter determining the progress of redox cycles is the metal-oxygen bond strength. Stronger
bonds make the metal a better hydrogen producer and inversely - weaker bonds lower the
temperature of the endothermic reduction reaction (Vishnevetsky et al. 2011). Zinc was selected
as intermediate promising substance for both reactions. This was confirmed by very positive
results of the European pilot scale SOLZINC project (Wieckert et al. 2007, 2009), the result of
collaboration between scientists from the Weizmann Institute of Science, the Swiss Federal
Institute of Technology, the Paul Scherrer Institute in Switzerland, Institut de Science et de Genie

des Materiaux et Procedes - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique in France, and the
ScanArc Plasma Technologies AB in Sweden.
In recent experiments, the 350-kilowatt installation produced about 50 kilograms of zinc
powder from zinc oxide each hour, exceeding projected goals at 1200°C in the reaction zone. The
process generates no pollution, and the resultant zinc can be easily stored, transported, and
converted to hydrogen on demand. In addition, the zinc can be used directly, for example, in
zinc-air batteries, which serve as efficient converters of chemical to electrical energy. Thus, this
method offers a way of storing solar energy in chemical form and releasing it as required.
The promising way to involve in redox cycles metals with strong metal- oxygen bond (Al,
Mg, B as an example) is carboreduction and thermal splitting of their oxides in vacuum. First
results obtained in our research are very promising (Vishnevetsky and Epstein 2011;
Vishnevetsky et al. 2012; Halman et al. 2012).
Thermal Storage of Solar Energy
It is possible to conclude from above that metal oxide reduction is a promising way for solar
energy storage in reduced metals.
In parallel, our scientist also investigates more traditional processes (Adinberg et al. 2010)
such as solar thermal storage using phase change materials (DISTOR project). The storage
medium, Phase Change Material (PCM), was made of an Sn (30w%)-Zn (70w%) alloy. This
development was specifically related to the DSG parabolic trough technology. This approach was
tested in a 30 kWh storage capacity and 10 kW power rate to produce saturated steam at 70 bars.
The discharge of the stored heat was achieved by boiling of a commercial organic Heat Transfer
Fluid (HTF) on the PCM and condensation on the external steam generator.
Software Development for Solar Applications
Most applications mentioned above were accompanied by Software development such as:
 Radiative Transfer Equation novel solver (Fiterman et al. 1999) and its high
efficiency parallel solution (Tal et al. 2003).
 A comprehensive solver tool for volumetric (Porcupine and particle) absorbers and
its extension to include chemical kinetics (results available in WIS reports 2000-
2003 years)
 Radiative properties of the Porcupine (Zhang et al. 2001 and 2002; Kribus et al.
2001).
 Simulation of the Porcupine reformer ( Ben-Zvi and Karni 2007).
 Thermal and stress analysis of the metal oxide reduction reactors (Vishnevetsky et
al. 2006 and 2012).
 Steam generator – software development and system design (Ben Zvi et al. 2012).
 WISDOM - Weizmann Institute Solar Dedicated cOmprehensive Mastercode
(Segal 1996).
Conclusions
The Weizmann Institute's solar research complex (the Canadian Institute for the Energies and
Applied Research) is one of the world's most advanced, sophisticated, and multi-disciplinary
facilities for R&D aiming at broad implementation of concentrated solar energy. It has a Solar
Tower, a field of 64 heliostat mirrors, and a unique beam-down optic system.
Our investigations were mostly financially supported by international and national programs.
Results obtained during the last 25 years starting at the opening of the WIS Solar Facilities are

widely used in the solar community, as reflected by multiple citations of our publications
available in specialized scientific publications.
Unfortunately, the future of the WIS Solar Tower’s activities is unclear because of the recent
decision made by the Weizmann Institute administration to change the application of the Solar
Tower building, turning it into a National Center for Personalized Medicine.

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Cylinder Array.” Journal of Heat Transfer 124: 198-200.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Michael Epstein: Solar Tower Director, Solar Research Facilities Unit, Weizmann Institute of
Science, Rehovot, Israel
Dr. Irina Vishnevetsky: Associate Staff Scientist, Department of Environmental Science and
Energy Research, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel

Dr. Akiba Segal: Senior Staff Scientist, Department of Chemical Research Support, Weizmann
Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
Rachamim Rubin: Researcher, Solar Research Facilities Unit, Weizmann Institute of Science,
Rehovot, Israel
Doron Lieberman: Chief Operation Engineer, Solar Research Facilities Unit, Weizmann
Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel

The International Journal of Environmental
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In addition to traditional scholarly papers, this journal
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