Equity in Education: Analysis of Gender, Income and Location Disparities

Equity and
Education
The State of Education Series
March 2013
A Global Report

Indicators
This presentation includes analysis of
gender/income/location disparities in:
 Net Enrollment Rates (NER) for primary and secondary
 Net Attendance Rates (NAR) for primary and secondary
 Out of School Children (OOS)
 Repetition Rates
 Primary/Secondary Completion Rates
 Learning Outcomes
 Gross Enrollment/Attendance Rates (GER/GAR) for
tertiary
 Youth and Adult Literacy Rates

Acronym Guide
Acronym Name
EAP East Asia and Pacific
ECA Europe and Central Asia
LAC Latin American and the Caribbean
MNA Middle East and North Africa
SAS South Asia
SSA Sub-Saharan Africa
WLD World (Global Aggregate)
GER Gross Enrollment Rate
NER Net Enrollment Rate
OOS Out of School
NAR Net Attendance Rate
GAR Gross Attendance Ratio
GPI Gender Parity Index (female value/male value)

Do gender disparities exist in pre-
primary enrollment rates?
 Gender parity indices
(GPIs) are calculated by
dividing the female value
for an indicator by the
male value, so perfect
gender parity equals 1.
A value below 1 indicates
a bias toward males. A
value above 1 indicates a
bias toward females.
 Globally, the GPI has
been increasing from .98
in 2000 to perfect gender
parity (1.0) in 2010.
 Most regions are very
close to gender parity (+/-
0.02) in 2010. Only MNA
lags behind.
 4 of 6 regions have a
slight female bias.
Gender parity in pre-primary enrolments (1.0) has
been achieved globally and in most regions.
0.98
0.99
0.99 0.99
0.99
1.00
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.05
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
GenderParityIndex(GPI)forGrossEnrolmentRatio.Pre-
Primary
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, November 2012
WLD EAP ECA LAC MNA SAS SSA
Female Bias
Male Bias

Do rural/urban disparities exist in pre-
primary attendance rates in ECA?
Source: Demographic and Health Surveys and Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys In World Inequality Database on Education (WIDE), Nov. 2012
% of 3 to 4 year olds attending any type of pre–primary education program

Do income disparities exist in pre-
primary attendance rates in SSA?
% of 3 to 4 year olds attending any type of pre–primary education program

Are more females out-of-
school than males?
 In 1999, there were
almost 62 million
females out-of-school
compared to 45.5
million males. 58% of
the world’s out-of-
school children were
female.
 In 2010, around 32
million girls were out of
school compared to
28.6 million boys.
52.5% of out-of-school
children were female.
 The gap between male
and female totals
decreased from 16.5
million to 3.6 million
between 1999 and
2010.
More Females are Out of Primary School than Males
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Out-of-SchoolChildren.Primary(inmillions)
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, September 2012
Males Out-of-School Females Out-of-School

Where are more females out-of-
school?
 Over half of the
world’s out of school
girls are in SSA, and
just under 1/4 are in
South Asia.
 South Asia has
decreased its total
number of females
out-of-school by 17.7
million since 1999.
The region’s total
dropped from 25
million to 7 million.
 SSA has also
decreased its total
from 24.3 million in
1999 to 17.5 million in
2010.
3 out of every 4 Out-of-School Girls are
in either Sub-Saharan Africa or South Asia
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Out-of-SchoolChildren.Primary.Female(inmillions)
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, October 2012
LAC ECA MNA EAP SAS SSA

Which countries have the most
females out-of-school?
 Around half of the world’s
out-of-school females live
in these 10 countries.
 36% of the world’s out-of-
school females live in the
Top 4 countries.
 Nigeria, Pakistan, and
India all have more our-
of-school females that the
sum of all females out-of-
school in LAC and ECA.
 Half of the countries are
in SSA and three are in
South Asia.
10 Countries with the Most Female
Out-of School Children
(2008-2011)
1 Nigeria 5,487,901
2 Pakistan 3,241,203
3 India 1,407,495
4 Ethiopia 1,367,141
5 Cote d'Ivoire 663,809
6 Philippines 661,551
7 Bangladesh 591,325
8 Niger 568,884
9 Yemen, Rep. 567,702
10 Burkina Faso 530,731
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, October, 2012;
Notes: Data displayed is the most current year available; Orange is
2008;Blue is 2009; Blue is 2010; Black is 2011; Data were not available for
61 of 213 countries.

Are there gender, income, or location
disparities in the % of children OOS?
 In all regions, more low
income students are
OOS than high income
students. SAS has the
largest income disparity
at 29 percentage points
difference between the
top and bottom quintiles.
SSA follows closely
behind with 24 points.
 A higher % of boys are
OOS in EAP, ECA, and
LAC, but a higher % of
girls are OOS in SAS
and SSA.
 In all regions except for
ECA, a higher % of rural
students are OOS. This
disparity is highest in
SSA at 15 percentage
points.2
Low income is the greatest source of disparity in
percentages of OOS children across regions.
-30
-28
-26
-24
-22
-20
-18
-16
-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
EAP ECA LAC MNA SAS SSA
PercentagePointDifferenceinthe%ofChildrenOut-of-School
(Male-Female,Urban-Rural,andQuintile1-Quintile5)
Gender disparity
Location disparity
Income disparity
Source: Estimated by Porta (2011) using data from Demographic and Health
Surveys, Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, and Living Standards
Measurement Studies for 1985-2007

Which regions have reached gender
parity in primary enrollments?
 Gender parity indices
(GPIs) are calculated by
dividing the female value
for an indicator by the
male value, so perfect
gender parity equals 1.
A value below 1 indicates
a bias toward males. A
value above 1 indicates a
bias toward females.
 Globally, the GPI has
been increasing from .93
in 1999 to .98 in 2010.
 Most regions are very
close to gender parity (+/-
0.03). Only MNA and
SSA lag behind.
 EAP, ECA, and LAC have
achieved gender parity in
primary (+/- 0.02).
All regions except MNA and SSA are within 0.03 of
gender parity in primary enrollments.
0.93
0.93
0.94 0.94
0.96
0.97
0.97
0.97 0.97
0.98
0.98
0.80
0.82
0.84
0.86
0.88
0.90
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
1.00
1.02
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
GenderParityIndex(GPI)forAdjustedNetEnrolmentRate.
Primary
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, November 2012
Female Bias
Male Bias

0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.15
GenderParityIndex(GPI)forGrossEnrolmentRatio.
Primary
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, September, 2012
Note: Data points are the most recent year with data available (2008-
2011)
Have most countries reached gender
parity in primary enrollments?
 Half of countries with
data have already
achieved gender parity
(+/- .02).
 78% of countries with
data are within 0.05 of
gender parity.
 Many more countries
have a bias toward
males in primary
enrolments (GPI<1).
 Afghanistan has the
largest male bias at .69
followed by Central
African Rep. and Chad
at .73.
 San Marino has the
highest female bias at
1.134.
78% of countries are within 0.05 of gender parity in
primary enrollments.
Female
Bias
Male Bias

Which countries have the largest gender
disparities in primary enrolment rates?
 The male primary
gross enrolment rate
in these countries is
much higher than the
female gross
enrolment rate.
 7 of 10 countries are
in SSA. 2 are in
South Asia and 1 is
in MNA.
 Of the 20 countries
with the lowest GPIs
(GPI<0.9),14 are in
SSA, 2 are in SAS, 2
are in EAP (Togo and
PNG), and 1 is in
LAC (Dominican
Republic).
10 Countries with the Largest Gender
Disparities in Primary Enrollment Rates
(2008-2011)
1 Afghanistan 0.694
2 Central African Republic 0.725
3 Chad 0.729
4 Angola 0.813
5 Yemen, Rep. 0.817
6 Pakistan 0.818
7 Cote d'Ivoire 0.833
8 Niger 0.837
9 Guinea 0.838
10 Eritrea 0.838
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, September 2012;
Notes: Data is GPI for Primary Gross Enrolment Rate; Black figures are 2011 data;
Blue=2010; Data were not available for 71 of 214 countries.

Which countries have decreased
gender disparity in primary the most?
 These countries have
moved from 0.14 to
0.25 percentage
points closer to
gender parity (1)
between 2000/2001
and the most recent
data year.
 6 of the 10 countries
are in SSA; 2 are in
MNA and 2 in South
Asia.
 Senegal now has
higher female
enrollment rates than
male enrollment rates
(1.06).
 Burundi and India
have reached gender
parity.
10 Countries with the Most Improvement
Toward Gender Parity in Primary
Enrollments
Percentage
Points
Improved
2000 or
2001
GPI
Most
current
GPI
%
Improved
1 Sierra Leone 0.25 0.67 0.93 37.53
2 Ethiopia 0.22 0.69 0.91 32.73
3 Burkina Faso 0.20 0.73 0.93 27.50
4 Benin 0.20 0.67 0.87 29.66
5 Yemen, Rep. 0.19 0.63 0.82 30.55
6 Burundi 0.19 0.80 0.99 23.64
7 Senegal 0.17 0.89 1.06 19.31
8 India 0.15 0.85 1.00 17.61
9 Pakistan 0.15 0.67 0.82 21.79
10 Djibouti 0.14 0.76 0.90 18.84
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, Sept. 2012;
Notes: Most current GPI is the most recent data point for 2008-2011;
Data were not available for 54 of 213 countries.

Do gender, income, or location disparities
exist in primary attendance rates?
 EAP, ECA, LAC, and
MNA do not have large
disparities in primary net
attendance rates (NAR)
between
genders, rural/urban
locations, or top/bottom
income quintiles.
 The largest disparities in
most regions are
associated with income.
In SSA and SAS, there
is a 20 percentage point
top/bottom income
quintiles.
 Rural students in SSA
also have NARs that are
12 percentage points
lower than urban
students.2
Gender, income and location disparities are small
in all regions except except SAS and SSA.
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
PercentagePointDifferenceinNetAttendanceRate.Primary
Gender disparity
Location disparity
Income disparity

Do rural/urban disparities in educational
access exist in SSA?
Percentage of the population in the official age range of
lower secondary education not in school
Percentage of 7 to16 year olds who has never been to school.

Do income disparities exist in educational
access in SAS and EAP?
South Asia (SAS)
East Asia and the Pacific (EAP)
Percentage of 7 to16 year olds who has never been to school.

Do females repeat more than
males in primary schools?
 Globally, there is less
than half a percentage
point difference
between male/female
repetition rates. Males
repeat slightly more
than females.
 Males also repeat
more than females in
all regions except for
ECA.
 The greatest gender
disparity is in MNA at
2.5 percentage points.
 In SSA, there is almost
no difference in
repetition rates
between males and
females.
Males repeat more than females in all regions
except ECA.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
EAP ECA LAC MNA SAS SSA WLD
Percentageofrepeatersinprimary.Allgrades
Male Female
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, March 2013
Notes: SAS data is 2009; All other data is for 2011.

Are more boys completing primary
school than girls?
 Globally, more males
are completing primary
school than females.
The difference between
male/female PCRs has
shrunk from 6
percentage points in
1999 to 1.8 in 2011.
 In most regions, more
males complete primary
than females, but in
LAC and EAP, the
reverse is true.
 EAP's female PCR was
2.4 percentage points
higher than the male
PCR. LAC’s was 0.7
percentage points
higher for females.
(continued on next slide)
Globally and in most regions, more males
complete primary school than females.
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
Primarycompletionrate.FemaleorMale
Male Female
Note: All data are for 2011 except EAP and SAS (2010).

Are more boys completing primary
school than girls? (continued)
 SSA has the largest
gender disparity in
PCRs with 74% of boys
completing vs. 67% of
girls in 2011.
 MNA also has a large
gender disparity at 6
percentage points
genders.
 SAS had a large gender
disparity in 1999 (15
percentage points) but
decreased the
difference to 2.7
2010.
Globally and in most regions, more males
complete primary school than females.
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
Primarycompletionrate.FemaleorMale
Male Female
Note: All data are for 2011 except EAP and SAS (2010).

Primary Completion Rate. Female
(2006-2012)
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, 2013
Note: Data displayed is for the most recent available year
The maps displayed were produced by EdStats. The boundaries, colors, denominations and any
other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of the World Bank Group, any
judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.
The maps are for reference only.

Gender Parity Index for Primary
Completion Rate
(2006-2012)
Gender
Parity
Female
Bias
Male
Bias

Are there gender, income or location
disparities in primary completion rates?
 Gender disparities exist
in all regions in
PCRs, but they are
surpassed by income
disparities in all regions
except for ECA.
 The greatest disparities
exist in SSA, where
there is a 55 percentage
point difference between
the PCRs of top and
bottom quintile students.
This compares to a 33
point difference between
urban and rural, and 9
point between genders.
 In EAP and ECA, more
rural students complete
primary school than
urban students.2
Low income is the greatest source of disparity in
primary completion rates in all regions except ECA.
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
PercentagePointDifferenceinPrimaryCompletionRate
Gender disparity
Location disparity
Income disparity

 El
Salvador, Nicaragua, C
osta
Rica, Peru, Guatemala,
and Colombia are
within 5 percentage
points of gender parity.
Female scores are
higher than male scores
in these countries.
 Uruguay has the largest
difference between
male/female reading
scores with a 19.6
percentage point male
bias.
 Panama (15.9), Brazil
(15.7), Cuba (15.2), and
the Dominican Rep.
(15.1) also have large Source: Latin American Laboratory for Assessment of the Quality of
Education (LLECE SERCE) in StatPlanet, August 2011
Have LAC countries reached gender
parity in reading levels?
Difference between Male/Female Mean Scores on
the 6th Grade Reading Assessment (2006)

 In all countries, mean
scores for rural students
are lower than for urban
students.
 The greatest location
disparity is in Peru (79)
followed by Mexico (58).
 Cuba has the smallest
disparity between
rural/urban areas (13)
followed by Nicaragua
(21).
 The scale of disparity
between urban/rural
scores is much higher
than the disparity
between male/female
scores.
Source: Latin American Laboratory for Assessment of the Quality of
Education (LLECE SERCE) in StatPlanet, August 2011
Does rural/urban residence impact
6th grade reading levels in LAC?
Difference between Urban/Rural Mean Scores on
the 6th Grade Reading Assessment (2006)

How do reading scores vary between
income groups in African countries?
 In all SACMEQ
countries, students
from the lowest income
quintile have lower
reading scores than
students in the highest
income quintile, but the
scale of income
disparity varies greatly.
 South Africa has the
largest disparity
between richest and
poorest followed by
Namibia.
 Lesotho, Mozambique,
and Malawi seem to
have the less of a
disparity between
income groups in
reading scores.
400
425
450
475
500
525
550
575
600
625
MeanScoreonReadingAssessment
Source: Filmer using Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for
Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ) 2000 database
Richest quintile of students Poorest quintile of students
Average score
Poorer students have lower mean reading scores in
all Anglophone African countries.

 Tanzania, Seychelles, a
nd Mauritius had the
highest reading scores in
2007.
 Mauritius and Tanzania
both improved their
scores, but Seychelles’
score was lower than in
2000.
 Some countries have
large disparities between
genders, but in these
cases, females have
higher scores than
males
(Seychelles, Mauritius
and Botswana).
 Malawi and Zambia have
had the lowest scores
over time.
Mean reading scores of 6th grade students vary
greatly between Anglophone African countries.
How do reading levels vary between
African countries?
420
440
460
480
500
520
540
560
580
600
620
Meanperformanceonthereadingscale(2000&2007)
2000 Total Male 2007 Female 2007 Total 2007
Source: Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality
(SACMEQ) in EdStats, August 2011; Note: Zimbabwe 2000 is 1995 figure.

0.92
0.94
0.95
0.96 0.96 0.96
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.05
1.10
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
GenderParityIndex(GPI)forNetEnrolmentRate.Secondary
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, Oct. 2012; No data
available for SSA and MNA for 2010. SSA 2008 data is from 2007.
parity in secondary enrollments?
 Globally, the gender parity
index (GPI) for secondary
net enrollment rate (NER)
has been increasing from
0.92 in 2000 to 0.96 in
2010.
 ECA is the only region
within +/- 0.05 of gender
parity (1.0).
 LAC has consistently had
higher female NERs.
 EAP has reversed from a
male bias (0.96) in 2000 to
a female bias (1.06) in
2010.
 SAS has greatly
decreased gender
disparity over time.
 SSA has maintained a
male bias 0.80 since 2000.
Gender disparities in secondary enrollments vary
greatly across regions.
Female Bias
Male Bias

0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.30
1.40
GenderParityIndex(GPI)forGrossEnrolmentRatio.Secondary
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, October 2012:
Data points are the most recent year with data available (2008-2011)
Does gender parity exist in secondary
enrollments in most countries?
 Just over half (52%) of
countries with data are
within 0.05 of gender
parity in secondary
enrollments.
 Unlike primary
enrollments, more
countries have a female
bias in secondary
enrolments. 85
countries have GPIs
higher than 1 while 71
countries have GPIs
less than 1.
 6 countries have
perfect gender parity
(1.0):
Slovenia, Mauritius, Sw
aziland, Japan, Indones
ia, and Cyprus.
More countries have higher female secondary GERs
than male secondary GERs.
Female Bias
Male Bias

disparities in secondary enrolments?
 In 9 of 10
countries, the
male GER is
much higher than
the female GER.
In Lesotho – the
female GER is
higher than the
male rate.
 8 of 10 countries
are in SSA. 1 is in
South Asia and 1
is in MNA.
 Of the 20
countries with the
greatest gender
disparity, 5 have a
female bias.
 14 of the top 20
are in SSA.
10 Countries with the Largest Gender
Disparities in Secondary Enrolments
(2008-2011)
GPI
Absolute value
from 1
1 Chad 0.42 0.58
2 Afghanistan 0.51 0.49
3 Central African Republic 0.55 0.45
4 Congo, Dem. Rep. 0.58 0.42
5 Guinea 0.59 0.41
6 Lesotho 1.38 0.38
7 Yemen, Rep. 0.62 0.38
8 Niger 0.66 0.34
9 Angola 0.69 0.31
10 Mali 0.71 0.29
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, October 2012; Notes: Data are 2010
GPIs for Secondary Gross Enrolment Rates except Guinea (2009), CAR (2011), and Mali
(2011); Data were not available for 52 of 213 countries.

Which countries have decreased gender
disparity in secondary the most?
moved from 0.19 to
0.34 percentage
points closer to
gender parity (1) over
time.
 Sweden and St. Lucia
improved from a large
female bias (1.26)
toward gender parity.
 The other countries
have improved from a
male bias (0.40 to
0.85) toward gender
parity.
within 0.05 of gender
parity in the most
recent year.
10 Countries with the Most
Improvement Toward Gender
Parity in Secondary Enrollments
Percentage
Points
Improved
2000/
2001
GPI
Most current
GPI
1 Cambodia 0.34 0.57 0.90
2 Sweden 0.27 1.26 0.99
3 St. Lucia 0.27 1.26 0.99
4 Mozambique 0.23 0.64 0.87
5 Senegal 0.21 0.66 0.88
6 Yemen, Rep. 0.21 0.41 0.62
7 India 0.20 0.72 0.92
8 Bhutan 0.19 0.85 1.04
9 Guinea 0.19 0.40 0.59
10 Turkey 0.19 0.73 0.91
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, October. 2012;
Notes: Most current GPI data for most countries is from 2010;
Guinea and Turkey are 2009; Mozambique data is 2011.

exist in secondary attendance rates?
 Large gender disparities
in secondary attendance
rates do not exist in any
region except SAS. In
LAC, ECA, and
MNA, slightly more
females attend
secondary than males.
 Rural/urban location
disparities exist in most
regions. In LAC and
SSA, location disparities
are 20/23 percentage
points.
 The largest disparities in
all regions are
associated with income:
There is a 35+
percentage point
top/bottom quintiles in
LAC, SAS, and SSA.2
The largest disparities in net secondary
attendance rates are associated with income.
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
PercentagePointDifferenceinNetAttendanceRate.Secondary
Gender disparity
Location disparity
Income disparity

Are there gender, income or location
disparities in secondary completion rates?
 Low income is the
greatest source of
disparity in secondary
completion rates in all
regions. The disparity is
greatest in SAS (60
percentage points), LAC
(44), and SSA (40).
 Rural residence is a
source of disparity in
SAS (29 percentage
point disparity), LAC
(25), and SSA (22).
 A slightly higher
percentage of females
complete secondary in
ECA and LAC, but the
opposite is true in other
regions.2
Income is the greatest source of disparity in
secondary completion rates in all regions.
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
PercentagePointDifferenceinSecondaryCompletionRate
Gender disparity
Location disparity
Income disparity

Do income disparities exist in lower
secondary enrolment rates in SAS and MNA?
South Asia (SAS)
Middle East and North Africa (MNA)
% of the population in the official age range of lower secondary education not in school

Do rural/urban disparities exist in lower
secondary enrolment rates in LAC?
Percentage of the population in the official age range of
lower secondary education not in school

Do regional disparities exist in lower
secondary enrolment rates in Asia?

Where are the greatest income
disparities in PISA math scores?
-30
-10
10
30
50
70
90
110
Iceland
Norway
Azerbaijan
Qatar
Montenegro
Macao-China
Slovenia
Finland
Australia
Canada
ChineseTaipei
Sweden
Japan
Switzerland
Denmark
Estonia
Russia
Ireland
UnitedKingdom
Netherlands
Greece
HongKong-China
Spain
Italy
Austria
Kyrgyzstan
Serbia
Liechtenstein
SlovakRepublic
Luxembourg
Latvia
Poland
Germany
CzechRepublic
Korea
NewZealand
Hungary
France
Lithuania
Jordan
Romania
Belgium
Indonesia
Bulgaria
UnitedStates
Tunisia
Thailand
Mexico
Portugal
Turkey
Colombia
Uruguay
Chile
Argentina
Brazil
PointsDifferencebetweenQuintile5and1onPISAMathScale
Source: Porta and Mcdonald based on Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA 2009) data, 2010
Richer students have higher scores in all but 3 countries – Iceland, Norway, and
Azerbaijan. The greatest income disparities are in 5 Latin American countries –
Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, and Colombia.

parity in tertiary enrollments?
 In 2000, the world gender
parity index (GPI) for
tertiary enrollments was
1.0 – perfect gender
parity. Since then, female
GERs have been higher
than male GERs, and the
GPI has been moving
above 1.0.
 MNA is the only region
within +/- 0.05 of gender
parity in 2010. LAC and
ECA have consistently
had higher female
GERs, and EAP has
reversed from a male
bias to a female bias.
 SAS and SSA have
maintained a strong male
bias in tertiary
enrolments over time.
Gender disparities in tertiary enrolment rates vary
greatly across regions.
1.00
1.02
1.04
1.06 1.07 1.08
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.15
1.20
1.25
1.30
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
GenderParityIndex(GPI)forGrossEnrolmentRate.Tertiary
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, Oct. 2012
Female Bias
Male Bias

Does gender parity exist in tertiary
enrollments in most countries?
 Only 9 countries are
within +/-0.05 of
gender parity in
tertiary enrollments.
 63% of countries
have a female bias in
tertiary enrolments
vs. 37% with higher
male enrolment rates.
 One country –
Vietnam – has perfect
gender parity (1.0).
 In 10 countries, the
female GER more
than doubles the
male GER. These
countries are island
nations in LAC and
Qatar (see next
slide).
The majority of countries have higher female
enrolment rates than male enrolment rates in tertiary
education.
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
5.50
GenderParityIndex(GPI)forGrossEnrolmentRatio.Tertiary
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, Nov. 2012
Note: Data points are the most recent year with data available (2008-2011)
Female
Bias
Male Bias

disparities in tertiary enrolments?
10 Countries with the Largest Male Bias
in Tertiary Enrolments
(2008-2011)
1 Chad 0.17
2 Congo, Rep. 0.21
3 Afghanistan 0.24
4 Congo, Dem. Rep. 0.31
6 Eritrea 0.33
7 Guinea 0.33
8 Ethiopia 0.36
9 Benin 0.38
10 Niger 0.38
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, Oct. 2012; Notes:
Maroon=2011; Black = 2010; Purple = 2009; Blue = 2008; Data were not
available for 73 of 213 countries.
10 Countries with the Largest Female
Bias in Tertiary Enrolments
(2008-2011)
1 Qatar 5.38
2 Dominica 3.35
3 Antigua and Barbuda 2.58
4 St. Lucia 2.57
5 Guyana 2.52
6 Barbados 2.38
7 Jamaica 2.28
8 Cayman Islands 2.24
9 Bermuda 2.12
10 St. Kitts and Nevis 2.10
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, Oct. 2012;
Notes: Black = 2010; Blue = 2008; Data were not available for 73 of
213 countries.

exist in post-secondary attendance ratios?
 Levels of gender
disparity in post-
secondary attendance
are much lower than
levels of location and
income disparity. More
girls than boys attend
post-secondary schools
in EAP, ECA, and LAC.
 Rural areas have
between 5 (SSA) and 15
(LAC) percent lower
attendance ratios than
urban areas.
 Income is the largest
source of disparity
across regions. Income
disparities range from 8
SSA to 34 in LAC.2
Income is the largest source of disparity in post-
secondary gross attendance ratios in all regions.
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
PercentagePointDifferenceinGrossAttendanceRatio.Post-Sec.
Gender disparity
Location disparity
Income disparity

Is there disparity between
genders in youth literacy rates?
 Globally, there is still a
gender gap in youth
literacy rates, though the
gap has been shrinking
over time.
 There was a 8.6%
difference between male
and female youth literacy
rates during 1985-1994.
 The gender gap shrunk
by 41.5% to 5.0% during
2005-2010. 92% of
males were literate
compared to 87% of
females.
Fewer females emerge from education
systems with basic literacy skills than males.
87.6
90.4
92.2
79.0
83.9
87.1
70
75
80
85
90
95
1985-1994 1995-2004 2005-2010
YouthLiteracyRate(%)
Male Female

Are gender disparities in youth
literacy rates decreasing?
 Gender disparities
between male and
female youth literacy
rates have decreased in
all regions.
 EAP, ECA, and LAC
have achieved almost
perfect gender parity
(1.0), while
MNA, SAS, and SSA
lag behind.
 SAS and MNA have
improved greatly over
time: They moved 0.17
and 0.14 closer to
gender parity.
 Progress in SSA has
been slower with only
0.09 improvement.
Gender disparities in youth literacy rates have
decreased over time in all regions.
0.90
0.93
0.95
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.05
1985-1994 1995-2004 2005-2010
GenderParityIndex(GPI)forYouthLiteracyRate

Gender Parity Index for Youth
Literacy Rate
(2006-2010)
Male
Bias
Male
Bias
Male
Bias
Gender
Parity

Which countries have the
lowest female literacy rates?
 The 20 lowest female
youth literacy rates
were all found in Sub-
Saharan African
countries except for
Pakistan.
 Only 1/3 of female
youth are literate in
Burkina Faso and Mali.
 Less than half of
female youth are
literate in the top 5
countries.
10 Countries with the Lowest
Female Youth Literacy Rates
(2006-2010)
1 Burkina Faso 33.1
2 Mali 33.9
3 Chad 40.6
4 Benin 44.6
5 Ethiopia 47.0
6 Sierra Leone 50.1
7 Senegal 56.2
8 Guinea 57.0
10 Pakistan 61.5
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, March 2013; Note:
Data points are the most recent year available: Green = 2009; Blue =
2007; Black = 2010; Data were not available for 71 countries.

Which countries have increased female
youth literacy rates the most over time?
increased their female
youth literacy rates by
14 to 23 percentage
points over time.
in SSA and 2 are in
SAS.
 Despite great
improvement, only 4
of 10 countries have
female youth literacy
rates higher than
75%.
 Haiti’s female youth
literacy rate worsened
over the period by 10
percentage points.
10 Countries with the
Most Improvement in
Female Youth Literacy Rates
Percentage
Points
Improved
1999-
2004
Rate
2006-
2010
Rate
%
Improved
1 Guinea 22.9 34.1 57.0 67.2
2 Gambia, The 20.3 41.4 61.7 49.1
3 Guinea-Bissau 19.4 45.9 65.3 42.3
4 Nepal 18.2 60.1 78.4 30.3
5 Bangladesh 18.2 60.3 78.5 30.3
6 Chad 17.3 23.2 40.6 74.6
7 Eritrea 17.2 69.5 86.7 24.7
8 Senegal 15.2 41.0 56.2 37.2
9 Mozambique 15.0 50.0 65.1 30.0
1
0
Ghana 14.4 65.5 79.9 22.0
Notes: Data are most current available year within the time period;

Youth Literacy Rate. Female
(2006-2010)

Is there disparity between
genders in adult literacy rates?
 Globally, there is still a
gender gap in adult
literacy rates, though the
gap has been shrinking
over time.
 There was a 12.6%
difference between male
(82%) and female
(69.4%) adult literacy
rates during 1985-1994.
 The gender gap shrunk
by 29% to 8.9% during
2005-2010. 88.6% of
males were literate
compared to 79.7% of
females.
Fewer adult females have basic literacy
skills, but the gender gap has decreased over
time.
82.0
86.9
88.6
69.4
76.9
79.7
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1985-1994 1995-2004 2005-2010
AdultLiteracyRate(%)
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics in EdStats, Mar. 2013
Male Female

Have gender disparities in adult
literacy rates decreased over time?
 Gender disparities in
adult literacy rates have
decreased over time in
all regions.
 ECA and LAC have
achieved gender parity
with GPIs at 0.98.
 MNA, SAS, and EAP
have made the most
progress by moving
0.16, 0.13, and 0.13
closer to 1.0 (gender
parity) respectively.
 Progress in SSA has
been slower with only
0.09 improvement.
 SAS, SSA, and MNA are
furthest from gender
parity in adult literacy.
All regions are moving closer to gender parity
in adult literacy rates.
0.85 0.88 0.90
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.05
1985-1994 1995-2004 2005-2010
GenderParityIndex(GPI)forAdultLiteracyRate

Which countries have the
lowest female literacy rates?
 Less than one quarter
of females are literate
in the top 3 countries –
Mali, Burkina
Faso, and Chad. Less
than one third of
females are literate in
the top 7 countries.
 All the countries on the
list are in SSA except
Pakistan.
 Of the 144 countries
with data, 19 countries
have female adult
literacy rates less than
50% and 70 countries
have rates higher than
90%.
10 Countries with the Lowest
Female Adult Literacy Rates
(2006-2010)
1 Mali 20.3
2 Burkina Faso 21.6
3 Chad 24.2
4 Ethiopia 28.9
5 Guinea 30.0
6 Benin 30.3
7 Sierra Leone 31.4
8 Senegal 38.7
9 Pakistan 40.3
10 Gambia, The 40.4
Note: Data were not available for 71 countries. Data are for the most recent
available year. Blue = 2007; Green = 2009; Black = 2010.

Which countries have increased female
adult literacy rates the most over time?
increased their female
adult literacy rates by
11 to 23 percentage
points over time.
 Six of the countries are
in SSA; 2 are in SAS.
 Despite great
improvement, more
than 1/3 of women are
illiterate in all of these
countries except Saudi
Arabia.
 Haiti’s rate worsened
by 10.3 percentage
points over time.
10 Countries with the
Most Improvement in
Female Adult Literacy Rates
Percentage
Points
Improved
1999-
2004
Rate
2006-
2010
Rate
%
Improved
1 Timor-Leste 23.0 30.0 53.0 76.5
2 Eritrea 17.3 40.2 57.5 43.1
3 Gambia, The 15.4 25.1 40.4 61.4
4 Nepal 13.5 34.9 48.3 38.6
5 Guinea-Bissau 13.1 27.5 40.6 47.7
6 Saudi Arabia 12.1 69.3 81.3 17.4
7 Guinea 11.8 18.2 30.0 64.7
8 Ghana 11.4 49.8 61.2 22.9
9 Bangladesh 11.4 40.8 52.2 27.9
1
0
Chad 11.4 12.8 24.2 89.0
Notes: Data are most current available year within the time period;

Adult Literacy Rate. Female
(2006-2010)

This presentation utilizes the following data sources:
1) UNESCO Institute for Statistics data in the EdStats Query
 The presentation was created with the most recent UIS data release that
included 2010 data for most indicators/countries.
 Indicators were calculated by UIS according to definitions available in the
EdStats Query.
2) Demographic and Health Surveys, Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys,
and Living Standards Measurement Studies for 1985-2007; Reports
were generated through ADePT Edu (2011)
3) Demographic and Health Surveys and Multiple Indicator Cluster
Surveys in the World Inequality Database on Education (WIDE)
4) Learning Outcome Data from the EdStats Query:
 Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality
(SACMEQ)
 Latin American Laboratory for Assessment of the Quality of Education (LLECE
SERCE)
 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)
Data Sources

The State of Education Series
The following State of Education presentations
are available on the EdStats website:
Educational Levels:
 Pre-Primary Education
 Primary Education
 Secondary Education
 Tertiary Education
Topics:
 Access
 Quality
 Expenditures
 Gender
 Literacy
 Equity

Equity in Education: Analysis of Gender, Income and Location Disparities

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Equity in Education: Analysis of Gender, Income and Location Disparities

Editor's Notes