Building Construction

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION 1 [ARC 1523]
Assignment 1: Experiencing, documentation and analysing construction
process
Tutor: Ar. Chin Tuck Hing
Members:
Cheong Siew Leong 0310845
Lee Yuan June 0311128
Ong Yii Siang 0302692
Phang June Ee 0311954
Tan Ming Long 0311069
Tan Wei How 0310707
Yong Chang Theng 0310925

Table Content building construction
Title Page
Introduction (TML)
Introduction of site
Site and Safety
Plants and Machinery
External Work
Foundation (YCT & CSL)
Superstructure (from site visit and reference)
Beam and Column (PJE)
Slab
Wall (OYS)
Staircase
Doors and Windows (TWH)
Roof (LYJ)
Summary (CSL)
Reference
1
2
3-6
7-9
10-13
14-18
19-21
22-23
24-28
29-33
34-39
40-42
43
44

INTRODUCTION building construction
1
Experiencing Construction by experiencing, documentation and analyzing construction process is the first assignment of Building
Construction. Our task was to visit ongoing construction site which is either medium rise or low rise buildings. It's better to see once than to hear
hundred times. It is a great opportunity for us to explore different types of building elements and its construction process, details and materials
guided by architect and contractor at the construction site.
We have studied and recorded construction of different building elements. We have learnt the basic principles and procedures of
construction process through real life project after visited construction site.
Tan Ming Long, Tan Wei How, Phang June Ee, Cheong Siew Leong, Yong Chang Theng, Lee Yuan June, Ong Yii Siang

INTRODUCTION building construction
2
Introduction to our site
Address – Lot Asal PT129227, Klang Selatan (KS09) Mukim Klang, Klang Bandar Diraja, Selangor Darul Ehsan.
Type – Two Storey Semi – D House & Two Storey Bungalow Type A & B;
Beginning of construction, Foundation, Superstructure, Doors & Windows, & Roof
A 52 Acres land, building 56 unit of houses. With guided by one of the architects in charge, we have observed and understood basic information of
the whole construction process from earth work, foundation until the almost complete show house unit. We have observed some good practice and
also not good or bad practice of the whole construction process at the site such as the construction methods, external work, safety issues, hygiene
issues and site management.

Site Safety building construction
3
Most accidents can be prevented by taking simple actions or take on proper working procedures. sites
for easy reference by the workers. If we work carefully and take appropriate safety measures, there will
definitely be less work injury cases, and our sites will become a safe and secure place to work in.
The Occupational Safety and Health Ordinance, which came into operation on 23 May 1997, covers
most workplaces in order to protect the safety and health of employees at work. Other legislation
applicable to construction sites includes the Factories and Industrial Undertakings Ordinance and its
subsidiary legislation, particularly the Construction Sites (Safety) Regulations.

4
Safety Helmet
Safety Footwear
Safety Vast
Personal Safety
 Wear protective equipment. Always wear safety helmet, safety vast and
safety footwear at construction site.
 Do not drink or take drugs while working.
 Pay attention to personal hygiene.
 Do not play in the workplace.
 Report to your supervisor immediately if you notice any unsafe
condition.
Public Safety
 Pay attention to public safety. Members of the public are often unaware of
or do not understand the work carried out on construction sites and the
hazards involved.
 Take great care to prevent the fall of materials from height.
 Do not stack materials on floor edges or on scaffolds.

5
Safety Sign Board at Our Site Safety Sign Board
Safety sign boards at the entrance before go
into the construction working area.
Safety sign board and notice board hanging at the
outside of site office.
The safety sign boards at our site are not a
good practice because the sign boards are not
big enough, the colours of the sign are not
noticeable and clear.
The site should have install standard and
proper safety sign board to aware people of their
safety on site.
Examples of Standard Safety Sign Board
at Construction Site
Safety Sign Board
Example of good practice safety sign board
placed at the entrance of construction site.
Safety sign boards which are more obvious and
clearer at construction site.

6
Site Security Safety at Construction Site
Construction sites are easy targets for theft; the high value of plant and equipment can lead to quick and easy profit
for the thief. Depending on area, each site will have its own issues of concern.
Construction sites are subject to a number of threats, in which security should be a main concern. These include
theft, vandalism and deliberate damage and terrorism. the perimeter of the construction site to places frequented by the
public should be guarded to the extent in which unauthorized access to the construction site must be prohibited.
SECURITY FENCING/HOARDING
Fencing can be an effective way of restricting unauthorized entry to a construction site where hazards are present.
the installation of a fence, either permanent or temporary, which should be maintained until the end on the construction.
An unauthorized person is not likely to enter a construction site while there is a physical barrier such as a fence, rather
than, for example, simply a warning sign.

Plants & Machinery building construction
7
Excavator
- An vehicle consists of a bucket on the front
only. It uses are excavating below/above
natural surface of ground, digging bigger
trenches & pits for basements, general grading
work, loading onto haul units and lifting.
Backhoe Loader
- An engineering vehicle, which consists of a
shovel/bucket on the front and a small
backhoe on the back. It uses are digging
shallow excavations/trenches, general
grading, lifting loads and loading & carrying
materials.
Forklift Loader
- Forklift is a potent industrial truck that is used
to lift and transport material by steel forks that
are inserted under the load. Forklifts are
normally used to move loads and equipment
that is stored on pallets.
Excavating & earth moving equipment Trucks & hauling equipment
Truck
- An hauling unit used to transport excavated
materials over a distance at fairly low costs.
Productive capacity depends on size of loads
and number of trips that can be made in an
hour.
Safety measures Operating Load Shifting Machinery
 Unless you are a worker concerned, do not work in an area where a loader, an excavator, etc. is in operation.
 Do not operate any load shifting machinery without training and approval.
 Operators of forklift trucks, bulldozers, loaders, excavators, trucks or lorries should possess appropriate certificates.
Plants and machineries are the helpful equipment to maximize the outcome with minimum work energy for building construction. Without
these plants and machineries invented, our construction works will be very tough and take long duration to complete. There are many types
of equipment nowadays help in construction process at different stages.

8
Concrete Truck
- It is a mobile concrete mixer truck which
transport the concrete from factory to
construction site. The mixer tank keeps
rolling during transmission to prevent curing
of the mixed concrete.
Concrete Mixing Plant
- It is a small mobile concrete mixer
which usually use at construction site.
Concrete plant & equipment
Pile Driving equipment
Hydraulic lead Pile Driving Rig
- hydraulic leads utilize a system of hydraulic
cylinders connected between the bottom of the
leads and the driving rig to control pile position.
This system allows the operator to position the
pile very quickly and accurately.
Telescoping-Boom Truck Mounted Mobile Crane
- A full revolving superstructure mounted on a truck
with multi section-telescoping boom. It is used to
hoist and place materials and machineries. This
crane can travel on public roads between projects
under own power with minimum or no dismantling
and reassembling.
Lifting & Vertical transportation equipment
Lattice Boom Crawler Mounted Crane
- This crane have full revolving superstructure
mounted on a pair of crawler tracks. It is used to
hoist and place materials and machineries

9
Safety Measures on Operating Plants and Machineries
 Before you operate a machine, ensure that the dangerous part of the machine has been installed with a guard.
 Avoid going to any area with insufficient lighting as there may be some dangerous places which have not been
provided with fencing.
 Keep vigilant all the time and watch out for moving cranes, hooks or other lifting equipment.
 Before you use any electrical installation or tool, check the condition of its electric cables.
 Avoid dragging electric cables on the ground or allowing the cables to come into contact with water.
 Use electrical tools installed with an earth leakage circuit breaker.
 Use and handle chemicals with care.
Borehole Machine
- It used to dig a borehole and test the soil on
site. Soil investigations are necessary for
engineering structures founded in deep
excavations. They also provide important
information on the soil and ground water
condition.
Pneumatic Air Compressor
- It is a portable air compressor. It is a machine that
is capable of converting electrical power into kinetic
energy, specifically by utilizing compressed air. Air
compressors are designed to work with various tool
attachments in order to provide pneumatic power. A
variety of electric tools use the air compressor,
including blo-guns, nail guns, air staplers and
others.
Other equipment

External Work building construction
10
Safety Measures on Excavations
 Keep the fence on all sides of an complete excavation.
 Use safe access for access and way out.
 Do not pile soil or any other materials at the edge of an
excavation.
 Make sure that a trench is securely shored before working in it.
Excavation
Excavation is the process of moving earth, rock or other materials with tools, equipment or
explosives. It includes earthwork, trenching, wall shafts, tunneling and underground. Excavation is
used in construction to create building foundations, reservoirs and roads. Some of the different
processes used in excavation include trenching, digging, dredging and site development.
During new construction, site excavation is one of the earliest stages. The site is excavated to
create a level, clean area to work, with the foundations being established in the excavated area. A
site may also be excavated and backfilled to confirm that the material directly under the site is of
high quality. The depth of site excavation can vary, depending on what is being built and where
the building is occurring.

11
Sewerage works
It provides the construction and completion of the sewerage system complete
with sewerage pipes including joint, concrete bed and encasing, formwork,
excavation and backfilling; manholes and inspection chamber including and
connection to main sewer line and make good all works concerned all to the
approval of Local Authority. Our site has install underground sewer piping for
sewerage system.
manhole Excavate trench for sewer pipe installation at our
site.
Trench Isometric Drawing
Trench Cross Section terminology
Sewer Pipe - Underground Installation
Foundation - A foundation is required only when the native trench bottom does not provide a firm working platform for
placement of the pipe bedding material.
Bedding - The bedding directly underneath the pipe is required only to bring the trench bottom up to grade. It should not
be so thick or soft that the pipe will settle and lose grade. The sole purpose of the bedding is to provide a firm, stable and
uniform support of the pipe. A bedding thickness of 100 mm (4") is most times sufficient.
Haunching - This area is the most important in terms of limiting the vertical deflection of the flexible pipe. Pipe support is
obtained in the haunch zone by compacting soil in both directions away from the pipe to the undisturbed trench walls.
Initial Backfill - This zone begins above the spring line to a level 150 mm (6") to 300 mm (12") above the top of the pipe.
Compaction here will give little additional side support to the pipe, but may be required to maintain stability of any above
ground surfaces.
Final Backfill - The remainder of the trench fill above the initial backfill provides no support for the pipe and should be free
of stones 150 mm (6") and larger. Compaction may be required
for reasons other than support of the PVC pipe since this zone is very significant in supporting the above ground
surfaces.

12
Signs and Notices
Signs and notices are essential elements at construction site to guide, show and notice the public , workers and employees
for general information of the construction and safety precautions.
General safety signs, warning signs, prohibition signs, mandatory signs and scaffolding banners are quite important to
minimize the safety issues which is usually and easily to occur at construction site.
Specifically, signs and notices at construction site are used as following:
 Administration area and office signs for visitors to report to
 To help in directing plant and materials deliveries
 For security and to act as warnings to the public and employees
 For ease of location of administration, safety, health and welfare facilities
 To show the names and organizations who are party to the contract
 To help maintain good public relations
Safety signs and notices board at
site office
Safety signs at the entrance of our
site
Construction Board
Administration office sign Site Plan

13
Hoarding/ Fencing
Where appropriate, perimeter hoardings should be installed to protect the peripheral space around the construction site or
building. Flat sided hoardings are considered better than fences because they are more difficult to climb and prevent viewing of the
site interior. It is recommended that hoardings or fences should be a minimum height of 2.4m and high security fences at least 3m.
The construction site that we visited do not install hoarding around, which is not a good example to follow. Our site only
separated by a big drain from the road. The hoarding is important for the security safety to prevent stealing of building materials
from site. It also avoid the public especially children to come into the site unauthorized and accidents happen in the site.

Foundation
The lowest part of a building or other construction, partly or
wholly below the surface of the ground, It is designed to
support and secure the superstructure and transmit its
weights directly to the earth.
Shallow foundation (Raft, Strip & Pad)
transfer the load to the earth at the base of column or wall of
the substructure
Deep foundation (Piled)
Piles are used to penetrate through upper layers of
incompetent soil in order to transfer the load to competent
load bearing soil or rock deeper within the earth
Piled Foundation
This is the type of foundation used at the site. The reason why
this foundation is chosen is because the site is located near to
sea where the soil condition is loose. So, a series of columns
are inserted into the ground to transmit the load(s) of the
structure to a stable load bearing subsoil
Strip Foundation
Suitable for most subsoil and light structural loadings such as
those encountered in low to medium rise domestic dwellings
where mass concrete can be used. Reinforced concrete is
usually required.
Pad Foundation
Suitable for most subsoil except loose sands, loose gravels
and filled areas. Pad foundations are usually constructed of
reinforced concrete and usually square in plan
Raft Foundation
These are used to spread the load of the superstructure
overall large base to reduce the load per unit area being
imposed on the ground and this is particularly useful where
low bearing capacity soils are encountered and where single
column loads are heavy
Foundation building construction
14

Pile Drive
A pile driver hammers a precast concrete pile
into the ground. The pile is supported by the
vertical structure (leads) of the pile driver and
driven by a heavy piston mechanism that
follows it down the leads as it penetrates
deeper into soil
12
Pile used on site
There are many different types of pile. The
pile used on site is PRECAST CONCRETE
PILES
They are square in sizes and reinforced by
rebar. The typical cross-sectional dimensions
range from 25 to 41 Centimeters and bearing
capacities from 45 to 500 tons.
Common mangrove pile
Mangrove piles are used for car porch foundation on site.
They are usually straight tree trunks cut off above and
allowable load ground swell, trimmed of a branches and
the bark removed, usually sizes between 75 to 125mm in
diameter 5 to 10 kn. The piles must be approved for
building construction first. Then, it must be free of sharp
bends ,large or loose knots, splits or decay.
15

Excavation
-the subsoil of the site is excavated to reduce level for
the construction of pile cap
-The excavated material is disposed off-site by lorries
Lifting
-The pile is tied on its lifting lug
-Lifting the pile
-The pile is straighten and ready for
hammering
Hammering Process
-The pile is driven into the ground by using drop hammer
-The subsoil around the pile shaft is displaced
-The pile is hammered into the ground until it cannot be
driven into the soil any further or to certain depth
Cutting of the Pile
-the concrete is crushed by Pneumatic hammer
-The reinforcement in the pile is cut by oxy-cutter
-The cut pile is lifted off and disposed
Construction of Pile Cap
-The formwork is build by using plywood
-The reinforcement is inserted into the formwork
-Then, concrete is poured into the formwork and
vibrated it
Section of Pile Cap
Piling process
The end of the pile is not structurally
connected with the footing which
connect the column to the base
16

Spread Footing
Spread Footing is a structure which help to spread the
weight of a structure throughout its surface area to
provide stability. it can be categorized into 5 types
which are :
Strip Footing
Strip Footing is the made with the continuous
spread footings of foundation walls
Continuous Footing
Continuous Footing is made from extended
Reinforced concrete footing in order to
Support a row of columns
Strap Footing
Combined Footing is a reinforced concrete footing
extended out to support an interior column load
Strap Footing is made from a column
Footing connected to another footing by
Tie beam in order to support an asymmetrically
imposed load
Combined Footing
Isolated Footing
This is the type of footing that our site
used. It is an individual footing supporting
free standing columns and piers
The tip of starter bars are tied up in
preparation for the next level where more
rebars will be added to the existing one
17

• Reinforced Concrete Slab, Minimum Slab Thickness : 10cm
• Polyethylene Moisture Barrier (DPM), To prevent water from running into the ground
during concrete curing, Thickness : 0.15mm
• Sand Layer, to provide a flat surface for concrete pouring
• Compacted Course gravel or crushed stone Layer, to prevent the rise of
groundwater, minimum thickness : 10cm
• Stable dense soil base Layer, compaction can be used to improve load bearing
capacity, resistance to water penetration and increase soil stability
• Underground wiring and piping will be installed before the concrete slab is cast
Correct Foundation Layer
Wrong Foundation Layer (From Site) From the site, we found out that the foundation work are not properly
executed
1. Wrong Position of Concrete Rod Spacer (Figure A)
2. No course gravel or crushed stone layer ( Figure B)
Figure A Figure B
Correct way of placing
a concrete rod spacer
18

Concrete Beam
Reinforced concrete beams are designed to act together with longitudinal
and web reinforcement in resisting applied forces. Cast-in-place concrete
beams are almost always formed and placed along with the slab they
support. Because a portion of the slab acts as an integral part of the
beam, the depth of the beam is measured to he top of the slab.
12
Concrete beam section
Concrete column
Reinforcement bar
Beams are rigid structural members designed to carry and transfer transverse
loads across space to supporting elements. The non-concurrent pattern of
forces subjects a beam to bending and deflection, which must be resisted by the
internal strength of the material. The beam, column and slab that is in our site is
constructed together. It is a continuous casting of concrete column, beam and
slab.
Reinforcing bars extend
into and down column
support for structural
continuity and to develop
the required embedment
length for anchorage
Beam building construction
19

12
Constructing concrete beam process
Fix the
reinforcement bar
for concrete beam
Fix the formwork for
the concrete beam
Pour concrete, wait
for the concrete to be
cured then remove
the formwork
Ground beams sometimes are casted together
with the slab, but in our site, they casted the
beams before they cast the slab.
As for the first floor beam, they casted the beam
together with the slab because it is not possible
to cast the beam first then the slab later.
Beam building construction
20

Concrete Column
Columns are rigid, relatively slender structural members
designed primarily to support axial compressive loads
applied to the ends of the members. The concrete column
that is built in our site was built along with the concrete
beam and slab.
12
Concrete column section
Type of columns
Wood/Timber column
Steel column
Concrete column
The column that is applied in our site is concrete
column.
Concrete column construction process
Fix the reinforcement
bar for the concrete
column
Fix the formwork for
the concrete column
Pour concrete, wait for it
to be cured then remove
the formwork
Column building construction
21

Soil / Fill
Concrete Slab
According to our observation on the site, the type of slab that they use is
concrete slab. Concrete slabs are plate structures that are reinforced to
span either one or both directions of a structural bay.
12
Two-way Slab
By observing the dimension of the
slab, we concluded that the slab that
is applied in this site is a two-way
slab. A two-way slab of uniform
thickness may be reinforced in two
directions and cast integrally with
supporting beams and columns on
all four sides of square or nearly
square bays. Two-way slab and
beam construction is effective for
medium spans and heavy loads, or
when a high resistance to lateral
forces is required.
Suspended Slab
The slab in our site doesn’t sits
directly on the ground, it is
suspended. They also fill the
suspended area with soil.
Slab building construction
22

Slab building construction
23
Prepare the ground
Sequence of constructing a concrete slab
Fix the formwork
Install service pipe
Finish the slab surface
Place and compact concrete
Fix the reinforcement bar
Cure the concrete slab
Before curing the concrete slab After curing the concrete slab
Reinforce rebar
Sand and Gravel
Ground soil
Damp proof membrane
Concrete slab

Walls are often used to support loads,
to insulate the building and to work as a
climatic enclosure, protecting the
building from sun, wind and rain.
Walls can be load bearing, supporting
the floor and roofs or non-load bearing.
However, they always separate a place
from another, working like filters in
space. Their qualities affect the space
they create.
There are different types of walls made
from different materials, according to
the requirements of the context and the
client’s wishes. A wall can be a solid
wall that carries its loads in
compression throughout its length and
so it requires supporting beams or a
continuous foundation.
12
On-site clay brick walls
on-site concrete brick walls
Wall building construction
24

Masonry wall
Masonry walls are made of piled up modular blocks, usually made
of clay, stone, cement or concrete. They are various ways a
masonry wall can be stacked and they create different patterns.
Usually they are hold together with the help of mortar that is made
of sand, cement and water.
English bond
On-site concrete bricks arranged in
English bond
12
Specification of standard modular brick
Concrete brick
made from solid concrete which is a combination of
Portland cement, aggregates and water.
Clay brick
Made from a mixture of clay and water then pressed into
forms and fired in a kiln.
25

Mortar
Mortar is a workable paste consists of cement or lime, or a
combination of both with sand and water. It is used as a bonding
agent in masonry construction. A standard mortar mix for new
brickwork would be 1:1:6 (cement:lime:sand) or1:4 (Portland
cement:sand).
On-site concrete bricks with mortar
12
Types of Mortar Joints
26

Step 1: Measure the length of wall
Start by putting a brick down at each end of the wall. Measure from the
outer edge of the brick at one end to the outer edge of the brick at the other
end to get the length of the wall
Procedures of constructing concrete brick wall
12
Step 2: Measure the brick
Measure the bricks and mark a few marks at 10 inch intervals. add about
3/8 of an inch onto the length of the bricks to compensate for the mortar in
between the bricks which is a "joint".
Step 3: Consistency
Keep the height of all bricks the same by using a spirit
level.
Step 4: set up the line
Hook a line at both ends so it lines up with the very top of
the two bricks. Then fill up the middle.
27

Step 5: continue on the next level
Always start at each end then fill in the middle until the destined
height. Remember to adjust the hook line on every level.
28
Step 6: Wiring and piping
After constructing the brick until the top,
get all kinds of piping ready such as wire,
air conditioner, water and etc. Then, craft a
cylindrical-like space on the wall vertically
or horizontally depending on the piping
system. After that, start setting up the
pipes.
Step 7: PLASTER & SKIM COAT
Apply the plaster in a smooth layer over the brick wall and let it
dry before applying a second coating which should be thinner
than the first layer. Smooth over the wall with a skim coat of
mud, applied with a special squeegee knife.
Plastering
Skim coating

A staircase is a construction designed to
link a large vertical distance by dividing it
into smaller vertical distances which is
called steps. It allows easy movement
between the different levels of a design.
Aspect that should be considered when
designing a staircase is the placement of
stairs, ease of travel and most importantly
the safety. Also, The design of a staircase
should take proper consideration of the
width, landings, handrails, guardrails,
treads, risers and nosing which are the
requirements of a staircase.
On-site concrete staircase
12
Staircase building construction
29

Concrete staircase
Concrete staircases are often specified for their strength,
durability, fire protection, flood resistance and sound reduction
properties.
On-site concrete Quarter Landing
Staircase
12
Quarter Landing Staircase
This staircase connects one level to another where it
makes a right-angled turn in the path of travel.
However, the two flights connected by an
intervening landing may be equal or unequal.
Parts of staircase
30

Procedures of constructing concrete staircase
12
Step 2: Determine the foundation’s dimension
The dimensions of the staircase’s foundation are the total length of
run and total width of staircase as measured in step 1.
Step 3: Build the form
Use either plywood or framing lumber to build the form. Cut the side
forms according to the tread and riser calculations.
Step 1: Calculate the stairs’ dimension
Standard measurement of Rise (7 inches) and Tread
(11 inches).
Measure the height of one floor to the other. (to get the
total number of rise) Divide the height with 7.25 inches
to get the number of steps. Measure the horizontal
distance the staircase will span (total run) and measure
the width of staircase from left to right (total staircase
width).
31

12
Step 4: Prepare the concrete
produce sufficient and well-mixed mortar with a portable
cement mixer.
Step 5: Pour the mortar
Start at the bottom and pour one step at a time. Make
sure the mortars are spread evenly. Use a spade to
remove the trapped air bubbles.
Step 6: Add finishing touches
Use a simple wood float to clean and smooth the surface of the
mortars.
Step 7: Leave and wait
Spray the stairs with curing compound and cover it with burlap.
After a week, remove the form lumber.
32

33
Disadvantages/issues of glass balustrade
• Stain and fingerprint magnet (glass)
• Difficult to Maintain (little space between glass and stringer)
• Unsafe (no handrail)
Solution
• install the glass panels above the staircase instead of fixing
beside the stringer so that the wall can be easily access
when cleaning or painting.
• Attach handrail to the glass balustrade for safety purpose.
glass balustrade
Glass balustrade is used as a modern device to keep the interior of
the living space light and open. It allows light to flow easily and also
add a touch of contemporary glamour. However, in this case, it comes
with disadvantages as well.
Figure 5.4.3
On-site Glass Balustrade

Door building construction
Door Definition
A door is an opening or closing
structure used to block off an
entrance, typically consisting of an
interior side that faces the inside of a
space and an exterior side that faces
the outside of that space.
34
Sliding Door
A sliding door is a type of door which opens
horizontally by sliding, whereby the door is
either mounted on or suspended from a track.
Easy-to-fit runner
Running track
Glazing bread
Single glazing
Thermal break
Mainframe
Multi-chambered sash
Weather-strip

Door building construction
35
Flush Door
Flush doors are simple interior and
exterior doors that feature plain facings
on both sides of the construction. The
flush doors on the site are made from
wood.
Solid wood frame
Insulation rubber seal
Wood pin
Bar strip
Main Board
Out covering
Wood pin & Fix plate
Solid wood
Wood reinforced ribbon
Wood block
Wood veneer

Window building construction
Windows Definition
- an opening in a wall, door, roof that allows the passage of
light, air and sound.
- Modern windows are usually glazed or covered by
transparent or translucent materials, which held in place by
frames.
- Many glazed windows can be opened, to allow ventilation, or
closed, to exclude inclement weather.
- Windows often have a latch or similar mechanism to lock the
window shut.
36
Types of Windows
1. Top Hung Window
An awning window is a casement window
that is hung horizontally, hinged on top.
1. Side Hung Window
A window with a hinged sash that swings in
or out like a door comprising.
1. Fixed Window
A window that cannot be opened, whose
function is limited to allowing light to enter.
1. Bay Window
A multi-panel window, with at least three
panels set at different angles to create a
protrusion from the wall line.
1. Tilt and Turn Window
A tilt and turn window can both tilt inwards at
the top or open inwards from hinges at the
side.

Side Hung Window
37
Casement Window
Multi-chambered
sash and mainframe
Step-down frame
Window hinge
Single Glazing
Weather-strip
Glazing bread
1.5m
0.5m
0.8m 0.8m 4cm
3cm
3cm
0.5cm
A window with a hinged sash that
swings in or out like a door comprising.
The frames of the fixed windows on
the site are made from aluminium.

Fixed Window
38
Fixed Window
Sash and mainframe
Backer rod
Single Glazing
Weather-strip
Glazing bread
2m
1.5m
0.5cm
6cm
2cm
2cm
2cm
3cm
A window that cannot be
opened, whose function is
limited to allowing light to
enter. The frames of the
fixed windows on the site
are made from aluminium.

Window & Door building construction
Windows Installation
39
1. Measure the width of
the rough opening at
the top, middle, and
bottom and the
height
2. Center a waterproof
membrane under the
rough opening to avoid
water infiltration
3. Set the window's sill
into the bottom of the
rough opening, and tip
the frame into the
opening
4. Place a 2-foot level
on the windowsill,
and note its high side
5. Double-check the
window is square by
measuring the frame
diagonally from corner
to corner
7. apply a bead of caulk
to the top edge of the
window casing, then
press the flashing in
place
8. Fit the sash into the
window frame.
6. Center a waterproof
membrane under the
window to covers the
bottom nailing fin
Door Installation
1. Measure the
dimension for a
perfect fit
2. Build up the sill area
to the proper height
with treated lumber
3. Apply a bead of
caulk along the
sides and top of
the door opening
and at the sill
4. Shim behind each
hinge. For large
spaces, start with
small squares of
plywood. Then finish
with pairs of shims
5. Screw driven into the
framing. Drive
additional casing nails
along the sides and
top of the exterior trim
6. Fill the space
between the doorjamb
and the framing with
minimal expanding
foam insulation
7. Cut and install new
interior trim or
reinstall the old trim
8. Press foam caulk
backer into the
siding/trim gap. Apply
a neat bead of caulk
between the siding
and the door trim

Roof Definition
- part of a building envelope, both the covering on the
uppermost part of a building or shelter which provides
protection from animals and weather, notably rain, but
also heat, wind and sunlight
- There are several types of roof such as gable roof, hipped
roof, gambrel roof, flat roof, mansard roof, shed roof etc.
- The shape of roofs differs greatly from region to region. The
main factors which influence the shape of roofs are the climate
and the materials available for roof structure and the outer
covering.
12
Function of roof
1. Insulation – Heat transfer through three ways which are convection, conduction
and radiation. In order to prevent heat to transfer into the house, roof is needed
as an insulator to prevent heat from flowing into the house directly. Materials
such as sisalation also being used to reflect the heat energy that transfer
through convection/conduction/radiation. Fibre glass were also add underneath
the roof tiles for insulation.
2. Drainage - The primary job of most roofs is to keep out water. The large area of a
roof repels a lot of water, which must be directed in some suitable way, so that it
does not cause damage or inconvenience.
Roof building construction
40
Gable roof
Flat roof
Hipped roof
Gambrel roof
Mansard roof
Shed roof

Roofing process
1. After all the levels are done, the roof beam will be
constructed on the column of the level below it.
2. The stiffener will come after roof beam, the stiffeners are
used to support the roofing system.
3. All the brick will be laid around the stiffener so that they
wont fall over easily
4. After all of the bricks are laid, roof beam will be put again at
the edge of the bricks to make it more stable.
12
1. 2.
4.
3.
41

Roof layering
- From the bottom until the roof top, there are several layers in the
roofing system.
- The first layer from the bottom is the metal structure or metal
truss which act as the support for the whole roofing system.
- After the metal structure will be the fiber glass layer which act as
an insulator to absorb and reflect heat from penetrates through roof
into the house.
-The third layer is the sisalation which act as an insulator and also
a protector for fiber glass from the water that flow from the roof top.
-- the final layer will be the roof tiles which act as a cover for the
house from sunlight, wind, rain, etc.
42
Roof structure details
The type of roofing system used in the site we
choose is metal roofing structure.
Roof tiles
Sisalation
(aluminium foil)
Fiber glass
Metal truss/
structure
Purlin
Metal truss/structure

1. Excavation
2. Piling
3. Ground Beam
Pile Cap Formwork On Ground Beam
4. Backfilling
5. Formwork Of
Ground Floor Slab
6. Ground Floor
Slab Completed
7. Formwork Of
First Floor Beam
Scaffolding
8. First Floor Beam
Completed &
Formwork Of First
Floor Slab
9. First Floor Slab
Completed &
Formwork Of
Staircase & Roof
Beam.
10.
Roof Beam
Stiffener
Window and Door
Staircase
Bricklaying
Excavator
Piling Driver
Starter Bar
Tied Up Pile Tip
Summary building construction
Building Construction Process
43

Reference building construction
44
1. Walls. (n.d.). technicalstudiescsm. Retrieved April 15, 2014, from http://technicalstudiescsm.wordpress.com/
2. Types of Mortar Joints. (n.d.). Types of Mortar Joints. Retrieved April 22, 2014, from http://www.qualityblock.com/joints.html
3. Bricks & Tiles. (n.d.). HubPages. Retrieved April 22, 2014, from http://bits-n-pieces.hubpages.com/hub/bricks-and-tiles
4. Brickwork Types and Brickwork Bonds. (n.d.). 1st Associated. Retrieved April 22, 2014, from http://www.1stassociated.co.uk/brickwork-types-and-brickwork-bonds.asp
5. How to Build a Brick Wall. (n.d.). wikiHow. Retrieved May 1, 2014, from http://www.wikihow.com/Build-a-Brick-Wall
6. Stair. (n.d.). Arhitectis. Retrieved April 24, 2014, from http://www.arhitectis.com/stair.htm
7. Glossary. (n.d.). OZStair. Retrieved April 24, 2014, from http://www.ozstair.com.au/design-centre/glossary/
8. Building Concrete Steps - How To Build Concrete Steps and Stairs. (n.d.).everything-about-concrete.com. Retrieved May 1, 2014, from http://www.everything-about-concrete.com/building-
concrete-steps.html
9. Balustrade | Staircase Glass. (n.d.).Glass Network. Retrieved May 8, 2014, from http://www.glassnetwork.com.my/pages/products/residential-glass/balustrade-staircase-glass.php
10. Stephen, E., & Christopher A. Gorse (2010). Barry’s introduction to construction of buildings. (Second edition) West Sussex : John Wiley & Sons Inc.
11. Chudley, R., & Greeno,R. (2004) Building Construction Handbook. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann
12. Francis D. K. Ching (2008) Building Construction Illustrated (Fourth Edition) New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc
13. Barry,R. (1999) The Construction Of Buildings (Seventh Edition) Oxford : Blackwell Science
14. Edward Allen & Joseph Iano (2004) Fundamental Of Building Construction (Fourth Edition) New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc
15. Scott Gibson. How to Install a Window. This Old House. Retrieved May 3, 2014 from http://www.thisoldhouse.com/toh/how-to/intro/0,,218006,00.html
16. How to Replace an Exterior Door. The Family Handyman. Retrieved May 8, 2014 from http://www.familyhandyman.com/doors/installation/how-to-replace-an-exterior-door
17. Occupational Safety and Health Branch Labour Department. (march, 2004). Safety Handbook for Construction Site Workers: Safety First, pg1-7.
file:///C:/Users/Win%208/Downloads/ConstrutionSite.pdf
18. Manitoba Labour and Immigration, Workplace Safety & Health Division. (December 2007). Guideline for Excavation Work. Pg14-27. file:///C:/Users/0311069/Downloads/excavationwork.pdf
19. L. Barnet, P.E. (2003). Construction Equipment Security. Pg2-4. Florida Partnership for Safety and Health. file:///C:/Users/0311069/Downloads/Chapter4construction.pdf
20. IPEX. (2010). Installation Guide: Municipal Systems. Pg11-12. file:///C:/Users/0311069/Downloads/PVC%20Sewer%20Pipe%20Install%20Guide%20(1).pdf
21. British Security Industry Association. (January 2012). Construction site security – a guide. Pg3. file:///C:/Users/0311069/Downloads/form_123.pdf
22. M. McMahon. (10 May 2014). What Is Site Excavation? Retrieved 12 May 2014, from wiseGeek website: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-site-excavation.htm
23. Klunk, Millan. (2014). Tech Support: Underground Installation. Retrieved 12 May 2014, from HARVEL website: http://www.harvel.com/technical-support-center/installation/underground-
installation
24. Excavation Construction. (2012). Retrieved 12 May 2014, from Wollam Construction website: http://www.wollamconstruction.com/excavation-construction.php
25. Government of South Australia. Fact Sheet: Construction Site Security. file:///C:/Users/0311069/Downloads/Fact%20Sheet%20-%20Construction%20Site%20Security.pdf

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