The document discusses the parts of a tree trunk. It describes four main layers: the outer bark, which protects the tree; the cambium layer, which produces new cells and growth rings; the phloem or inner bark, which transports sap; and the xylem or sapwood, which transports water and nutrients up the tree. The xylem cells in the center eventually die to form the tree's heartwood. Overall, the document provides a concise overview of the key layers and tissues that make up a tree trunk and their functions.

1. Republic of the Philippines
Tarlac State University
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Lucinda Campus, Tarlac City
Technology and Livelihood
Education
(T.L.E.)
“CIVIL TECHNOLOGY:
CARPENTRY AND MASONRY”
(2018-2019)
Name :__________________________________________
Yr. and Section : __________________________________

2. TOOLS
A tool is a device or implement, especially one held in the hand, used to carry out a particular
function.
The efficiency and quality of the work particularly in building construction depends upon
three factors:
1. Availability and sufficiency of materials.
2. Experience and skills of the workers in their respective fields.
3. Complete set of tools and equipment of good quality and good standard make.
The different kinds of tools may be classified according to the different kinds of trade
involved:
1. Carpentry tools
2. Masonry tools
3. Painters tool
4. Plumbing tools
5. Electrical tools
CARPENTRY TOOLS
Carpentry tools are classified according to their functions:
1. Measuring tools
2. Marking tools
3. Testing and Guiding tools
4. Fastening tools
5. Rough Facing tools
6. Toothed cutting tools
7. Sharp-edged Cutting tools
8. Smooth Facing tools
9. Boring and Drilling tools
10. Holding tools
11. Sharpening tools
12. Work bench
1. MEASURING TOOLS
1.1 Ruler
- a 12-inch or one foot rule it is used to take/make simple measurements.
1.2 The Two Foot Folding Rule
- it is generally used in measuring short distances.
- it is usually made up of four folds connected by three hinges spaced at 6 inches
or 15 cm apart which could be folded-up.
1.3 The Extension Rule
- this tool is used for measuring inside distances such as doors, windows, cabinets
etc.
1.4 Zig-Zag Rule
- it is commonly used by carpenters for rough layout.
1.5 Try Square
- squaring, measuring and testing tool used to check adjacent surfaces for
squareness.
There are three types of joints available:

3.  Concealed
 Riveted
 Springless
1.6 Push-Pull tape rule
- flexible tape that slides into a material case and
- it is used to measure irregular and regular shapes.
1.7 Slide Caliper Ruler
- used for measuring diameter of a cylindrical object
2. MARKING TOOLS
2.1 Pencil
- used to layout or mark cutting lines.
2.2 Marking Gauge
- wood or metal tool consisting of a beam, head and a point
- used to mark a line parallel to the grain of the wood.
2.3 Chalk or Charcoal line
- used to establish a straight line on a surface.
- it is used for marking a very rough work.
2.4 Scratch Awl
- it is used for marking semi-rough work
2.5 Scriber
- it is a hardened steel with a sharp point designed to mark fine lines.
- used in marking fine work
2.6 Compass
- is used to inscribe arcs and circle.
2.7 Divider
- tool with two metal legs used to lay-out an arc circle or step off division on a
line.
3. TESTING AND GUIDING TOOLS
3.1 Level
- is used for both guiding and testing the work to a vertical or horizontal position.
3.2 Plastic Hose with Water
- it is the best an accurate tool for guiding the work in establishing a horizontal
line.
3.3 Plumb Bob
- it is used to check or obtain a vertical line
3.4 Miter Box
- it is a device used as a guide of the hand saw in cutting object to form a miter
joint.
3.5 Miter Shooting Board
- is a plain board with two 45˚ guide fastened on top of the upper board. This
device is used for designing pattern, cabinets, etc.
3.6 Sliding T-bevel
- it is like a try square with sliding and adjustable blade that could be set to any
angle other than 90 degrees.
3.7 Angle Divider
- is a double bevel used to divide an angle in a complicated work. This tool can
divide an angle in one step.
3.8 Square

4. - it is a right angle standard at 90 degrees used in marking or testing work
Different Types of Square
 Try Square – is a square with blades with ranges permanently set from (3” to 15”) 7.6 to
38 cm.
 Miter Square – is a square with blades permanently set at 45 degrees.
 Combined Try and Miter Square – is a combination of 45 and 90 degrees in one set.
 Combination Square – is a similar to try square only that the blade can be made to slide
and clamp at any desired place of the blade and is also provided with a miter and a level
guide.
LESSON I: .USE OF HAND TOOLS
TOOLS
Tools are defined as implements to modify raw materials for human use. It can also be
considered as an extension of the hand by increasing speed, power and accuracy in doing work.
FASTENING TOOLS
Fastening tools are the tools used to fasten or secure parts of the construction that are to be
connected together with nails, screws, bolts, etc.
These are used to fasten parts of the work to connect them together with the use of nails,
screws, bolts and etc.
The different types of fastening tools are:
1. Hammer - a tool with a heavy metal head mounted at right angles at the end of a handle,
used for jobs such as breaking things and driving in nails.
Claw Hammer – a hand tool made of steel carefully forged, hardened and tempered.
Their size varies from 140 to 560 grams. It is used for driving and pulling nails. It is used for
heavy work. The face is used for hammering or striking the nail. The opposite end of the head
forms a curved claw that is used for pulling out old or poorly driven nails.
a. A 400 – 450 grams is recommended for finishing work.
b. A 450 – 560 grams is recommended for framing work.
Cross Peen Hammer – is similar to the claw hammer, the only difference is that the peen
is opposite the face. The peen is used for tapping a small nail held between the thumb and
fingers before the thumb and fingers finally using the face.
Ball Peen Hammer – has a round ball-likepeen opposite the face. This is best for metal
work.
2. Wrenches – a hand tool with a handle and a jaw which may be fitted to the head of a nut
used to tighten or loosen bolts.
The three general classes of wrenches are:
a. Plain
b. Socket
c. Adjustable

5. 3. Screw Driver – a hand tool with a head and a shank used for turning screw or used to
drive screw, classified either as:
a. Plain
b. Automatic
It may also be classified according to the shape of the tip of the shank, such as:
a. Ordinary
b. Phillips
4. Wooden Mallet – used to drive chisel and gauge to prevent their handles from splitting.
5. Screw Driver Bit – works like a screw but it is attached to a bit brace.
ROUGH FACING TOOLS or STRIKING TOOLS
Rough Facing tools are the so called “Striking tools” because they are used through a series of
blows. They are also called “inertia tools”, or “Rough Facing tools” because the cut produced
were rough.
The different kinds of rough facing tools are:
1. Hatchet – is generally a utility tool used for sharpening stakes and cutting down timber
to rough sizes.
- It is smaller than axe and has a short handle. It is used for chopping pieces of wood.
Some hatchets have a slot on the blade used for drawing out nail and head for driving nail.
2. Axes – a tool used for splitting wood or hewing timber.
- It is used for cutting down trees and splitting logs. The handle is long and held by both
hands. It can be single-backed or two-bitted axe.
3. Adze – roughly, an adze is a hatchet in which the blade is at right angle with the handle.
TOOTHED CUTTING TOOLS
In carpentry work, the toothed cutting tools are of utmost importance considering its
versatility and service demand. Tooth cutting tools or saws are main tools for a carpenter. The
most commonly used saws by a Carpenter are the Crosscut saw, Rip saw Back saw and the Hack
saw.
There are several types of this kind of tools:
1. Saws – the most important of this kind of tools are classified according to:
a. Kind Saw and their uses or cut.
1. Cross cut – used for sawing across the grain of wood.
2. Rip cut – used for sawing along the grain of wood.
3. Combined rip and Cross cut
4. Back Saw – used for fine cutting ad for delicate wood joints.
5. Coping Saw – used for sawing curves on thin pieces of wood.

6. 6. Turning Saw – used for sawing curves on thin pieces of wood.
7. Compass or Key hole Saw – used for sawing curves on thick pieces of wood starting from
a hole.
a.Shape of the blades: Straight back
Narrowed
Thin back
Skew back
2. Files – metal tool of different shapes and sizes used for abrading, reducing, or smooth
cutting metal, wood or other materials. They are named after their shapes, such as rectangular,
square, triangular and round or half-round. They have teeth on both edges and faces.
SHARP-EDGED CUTTING TOOLS
These are tools wherein the sharp edge or the cutting side of the blade is used for
cutting. Examples of these are:
A. Chisel – it is an indispensable tool in carpentry which also considered as the most abused
tool often used for prying, open cases or as screw driver etc. It is very important tool in the
construction of most joints made by hand. They are measured according to their width in
inches.
- Used for chipping or removing away some part of the wood.
Chisels are classified according to:
1. Service:
a. Paring Chisel – a light duty tool used to plane long surfaces parallel with the grain of
wood. Paring chisel should not be driven by blows but only manipulated by means of hand
pressure.
b. Firming Chisel – used for medium duty work usually driven by hand pressure in paring or
by the use of mallet blow in mortising work.
c. Framing Chisel – a heavy duty tool used to design to absorb a severe strain in framing
work where deep cut is necessary.
2. Length:
a. Butt
b. Pocket
c. Mill
3. Side Blade:
a. Plain
b. Bevel
Chisels may also be classified according to its blade with unnatural width. Those chisels with
blades wider than (2 in.) 5cm is called “Stick”.
B. Draw Knife – is used in trimming work by drawing towards the worker.
- Has a blade which is about 10-12 inches long with the handle of each end and is used for
shaping stock which is too thick for planning and too thin for shaving.

7. LESSON I. USE OF HAND TOOLS
Smooth facing tools
The different kinds of smooth facing tools are:
1. Spoke shave – a modified kind of draw knife with an adjustable blade like a plane to limit
the thickness of the cut
2. Plane – is used in smoothing boards or other surfaces for framing and molding. Plane is
also used to make wood surfaces into uniform thickness.
Planes are classified according to its size and services:
1. Jack plane – for heavy rough work.
2. Fore plane – for smoothing and straightening the rough or irregular cut of the jack plane.
3. Trying plane – is used to obtain the smoothest finish.
4. Jointer – a trying plane is a simple small jointer.
5. Smooth plane – a small plane used for smoothing uneven surfaces in wood even those with
minor depressions.
6. Moulding and special planes – are planes used in making various shapes of moulding and
cuts.
The different types of moulding planes are:
a. Rabbet of Rebate plane – used for making a sinking cut on wood to make them fit to
each other.
b. Fillester plane – similar in the use as the rabbet plane but is more preferable because it
cuts more accurately than the former.
c. Grooving Plane – used in cutting across the wood grain.
d. Router – used to surface the bottom of the grooves.
e. Round and hollow moulding plane – used to produce a concave or convex surface.
Boring or Drilling Tools
The different types of drilling tools are:
1. Brad awls – A small tool used for punching or piercing small holes. It is generally used in
starting a nail or screw into hardwood.
2. Gimlets – Tools used for boring small holes by hand pressure classified as:
a) Twist b) plain
3. Augers – is used for boring holes with a diameter from 1/2” to 2” inches 12.7 mm to 25
mm. Augers that are provided with a shank are commonly called “bits”
4. Twist Drills – used for drilling small holes. Twist drills are preferably used in cases where
the gimlets or the auger may cause splitting of the wood grain.

8. 5. Hollow Augers – used for external boring or turning.
6. Spoke Pointers – cuts conical holes. It is similar to the auger only that the cutter is
lengthwise.
7. Counter Sinks – used for enlarging a conical hole at the surface of wood.
8. Reamers – usually a reamer is used chiefly by machanist in enlarging metal holes.
LESSON I.: USE OF HAND TOOLS
Sharpening Tools
Sharpening means the process of creating or refining a sharp edge. Sharp tools assure
the worker to in accomplishing a quality work and is faster than using dull tools.
Different kinds of sharpening tools:
1.Grind Stone
- A grindstone is a round sharpening stone used for grinding or sharpening ferrous tools.
They are usually made from sandstone.
- A flat disc solid stone usually of sandstone mounted on a shaft used for sharpening,
shaping, or polishing metal by turning.
2. Oil Stone
- Used after the grinding operation to achieve a smooth and keen edge of the tools.
- Oil is used as a lubricating medium and that is why theyvare called oil stone.
Two types of oil stone:
a. Natural- found in their natural state.
b. Artificial- are ordinary abrasives such ad carburandum and emery.
Power Tools
• A circular saw is a power-saw using a toothed or abrasive disc or blade to cut different
materials using a rotary motion spinning around an arbor.
• A power drill is a tool fitted with a cutting tool attachment or driving tool attachment,
usually a drill bit or driver bit, used for boring holes in various materials or fastening various
materials together with the use of fasteners.
• Jigsaw (tool), a tool used for cutting arbitrary curves.
• Random orbit sanders, also called Dual-Action or D.A. sanders (referring to the rotation
of the disk and the head) are hand-held power sanders where the action is a random orbit.
• Table saw is the heart an md soul of every woodworking shop.
• A compound miter saw (also spelled mitre) is a saw used to make accurate crosscuts and
miters in a workpiece.
• Router is a machine with a revolving vertical spindle and cutter for milling out the
surface of wood or metal.

9. LESSON II:
PARTS OF A TREE TRUNK
Trunk/Stem
The trunk, or stem, of a tree supports the crown and gives the tree its shape and strength. The
trunk consists of four layers of tissue. These layers contain a network of tubes that runs
between the roots and the leaves and acts as the central plumbing system for the tree. These
tubes carry water and minerals up from the roots to the leaves, and they carry sugar down from
the leaves to the branches, trunk and roots.
Bark
The trunk, branches and twigs of the tree are covered with bark. The outer bark, which
originates from phloem cells that have worn out, died and been shed outward, acts as a suit of
armor against the world by protecting the tree from insects, disease, storms and extreme
temperatures. In certain species, the outer bark also protects the tree from fire.
The cambium is a very thin layer of growing tissue that produces new cells that become either
xylem, phloem or more cambium. Every growing season, a tree’s cambium adds a new layer of
xylem to its trunk, producing a visible growth ring in most trees. The cambium is what makes the
trunk, branches and roots grow larger in diameter.
Phloem/Inner Bark
The phloem or inner bark, which is found between the cambium and the outer bark, acts as a
food supply line by carrying sap (sugar and nutrients dissolved in water) from the leaves to the
rest of the tree.
Xylem/Sapwood
The xylem, or sapwood, comprises the youngest layers of wood. Its network of thick-walled cells
brings water and nutrients up from the roots through tubes inside of the trunk to the leaves
and other parts of the tree. As the tree grows, xylem cells in the central portion of the tree
become inactive and die. These dead xylem cells form the tree’s heartwood.
Heartwood
As a tree grows, older xylem cells in the center of the tree become inactive and die, forming
heartwood. Because it is filled with stored sugar, dyes and oils, the heartwood is usually darker
than the sapwood. The main function of the heartwood is to support the tree.
WOOD WORKING TOOLS
claw hammer-The claw on one side of the head should be well counter balanced by the finish
head, which should be somewhat rounded
tape measure. Get a retractable one that is at least 25 feet long. Since measurements on large
scale projects can be very susceptible to even the most minute measurement variations, you’ll
want to make sure the “hook” or tab at the end of the is firmly attached, with no give. When
they get loose, you’ll have as much as 1/8” variation in your measurements.
utility knife here are many different kinds, but the kind that uses disposable blades is the most
common. The blade retracts into the grip for safety. The woodworker will use the utility knife
when cleaning out mortise joints or scribing wood, as well as many other uses.

10. Chisels to clean out joints and saw cuts. Look for chisels made of High-alloy carbon steel or
chromium-vanadium alloyed steel. Hardwood grips are best, especially if they have metal caps on
them. This will keep the end of the handle from becoming mal-formed when you hammer on it.
Screwdrivers a long screwdriver with a square blade that is very heavy duty. This gives you a lot
of torque. You’ll also need a small and medium slot screwdriver. For working on cabinets or tight
places in woodworking, you’ll need a screwdriver with a thin shank so that you can reach screws
that are inside of deep holes. This is accomplished with a cabinet screwdriver. Get a couple of
medium Phillips head screwdrivers, and a stubby one, too, for those tight places. You may also
want a ratcheting screwdriver.
sliding bevel If you’re going to be measuring a bunch of angles, a sliding bevel, or T Bevel, will be
a handy tool. This is adjustable, and you can lock it at the angle you want to mark, making it
much more time-savvy to mark multiple angles.
The layout square is a triangle that you can use to mark square cuts on stock. Once you measure
the length of the cut, you line up the layout square with the edge of the board. The short side
will give you a straight, square cut across the end grain. You can also measure off angles with
the layout square. This helps when you’re trying to measure for a bevel on a table saw, or
marking a cut for a miter saw
block plane is the key to versatility in your woodwork. You can flatten a piece of wood, or add a
curve to it, square your work.
Calipers have a double “F” appearance. To one side is a large “F”, used to measure the outside of
an object. To the other side will be a smaller “f”, used to measure the inside of openings. You
loosen the screw to move the lower “lip” of the caliper, then tighten the screw into place when
you have the caliper placed correctly.
Hand saw- to cut the wood firmly For general use, start out with a fretsaw for woodworkers –
it’s like a coping saw for wood. You need a mini saw, too, for areas in which a chisel just won’t
work. Then, a good tenon saw should follow, along with a miter box that you can use with the
tenon saw. Other saws, with their variety of cutting surfaces and angles, will come as the need
arises.
Jig use a jig with a power tool, to guide the piece through the saw. You can make a jig to cut a
perfect circle. Maybe you need to make furniture with tapered legs. A jig will accomplish this,
without the hassle of re-marking the angles on each leg.
References: parts-of-a-tree.htm, Top 40 Tools Every Woodworker Should Have - Wagner
Meters.htm
LESSON II:PREPORTION OF MATERIALS
The Methods of Log Sawing
1. Plain or Bastard Sawing – is the cutting of logs entirely through the diameter and parallel
chords tangential to the annual rings.
2. Quarter or Rift Sawing:
a. Radial
b. Tangential
c. Quarter Tangential
d. Combined Radial and Tangential.
Defects in Wood
Defects are irregularities found in wood. The most common defects in wood are:
1. Caused by Abnormal Growth

11. a. Heart Shake - are redial cracks originating at the heart of the log.
b. Wind Shakes or Cup Shake - are cracks or breaks across the annual rings of timber
during its growth caused by excessive bending of the tree due to wind.
c. Star Shakes - composed of several heart shakes which radiate from the center of the
log in a star-like manner.
d. Knots - occurs at the starting point of a limb or branch of the wood.
2. Due to Deterioration
a. Dry Rot - is the presence of moisture caused by fungi in seasoned wood.
b.Wet Dry – takes place sometimes in the growth of the tree caused by water saturation.
Seasoning of Lumber
A tree when fallen contains moisture in their cell layer. This moisture should be expelled
thoroughly to preserve the lumber from shrinkage or decay.
The two methods adopted in seasoning of lumber are:
1. Natural or Air Seasoning – this is considered as one of the best method of seasoning
lumber although the period involved is relatively longer.
2. Artificial Seasoning – the lumber is stacked in a drying kiln and then exposed to steam
and hot air. The different artificial seasoning methods employed are:
a. Forced Air Drying – fans are used to booster the circulation of air preparatory process
to kiln drying.
b. Kiln Drying – lumber is dried in a specially built room or chamber by which temperature
and humidity as well as the circulation of air is controlled.
c. Radio Frequency Dielectric Drying – a very fast method of drying lumber wherein the
use of radio frequency dielectric heat is employed. Drying through this process may only take
24 hours as compared to the other methods.
Caused of Decay and Methods of Preservation
Wood does not decay naturally through age nor will it decay if it is kept constantly dry or
continuously submerged in water.
The common causes of decay in wood
are:
1. Alternate moisture and dryness
2. Fungi and molds
3. Insects and worms
4. Heat and confined air
The essential requirement to achieve a successful preservation of wood is good seasoning and
the process of preserving wood are:

12. 1. External – the wood is coated with a preservative coating (as paint) which will penetrate
the fibers.
2. Internal – a chemical compound is impregnated at a pressure to penetrate the wood
thoroughly.
LESSON II:PREPORTION OF MATERIALS
Manufactured Boards
Manufactured boards are timber sheets which are produced by gluing wood layers or wood
fibres together. Manufactured boards often made use of waste wood materials. Manufactured
boards have been developed mainly for industrial production as they can be made in very large
sheets of consistent quality. Boards are available in many thicknesses.
Manufactured Board properties:
• Manufactured boards often made use of waste wood materials.
• Saw dust is used to make MDF and hardboard.
• The saw dust is held together with glue.
• Boards are inexpensive so are often used as instead of real woods.
• Manufactured boards do however do not look as good as real woods look.
• Manufactured boards are often covered with a thin layer of real wood which is called veneer
this improves their appearance.
Example of Manufactured Boards
MDF (medium density fibreboard) made by a process which glues wood fibres together using
heat and pressure. The boards are smooth and stong. They are resistant to warping. MDF is
available in a range of thicknesses, 3mm, 6mm, 9mm, 12mm, 15mm, and 18mm.
Plywood is made from layers of thin wood glued together at 90 degrees to each other, this
makes plywood very strong as it cannot split along the grain like solid timber. Availablein a
range 1mm, 2mm, 3mm, 4mm, 6mm, 9mm, 12mm, 15mm and 18mm.
Chipboard is made from softwood chips glued together. It is a very cheap material and is used
to make kitchen worktops and car where it is laminated with a melamine layer to give it a
decorative and hardwearing finish. Usually available as 18mm thick.
Hardboard (particle board) is also used in furniture making usually as a back to a shelving unit
or cupboard. usually available as 4 or 6mm thick.
Blockboard is used to make strong shelves. It is made from pieces of softwood in a sandwich
with a thin layer of wood top and bottom.
Requesting Appropriate Materials and tools
Requisition is a request for something, specially a formal written request on a re-printed form.

13. Requisitioner Is a person in charge of the quality and quantity of the materials and tools being
requested.
1. Purchaser is a negotiator that is responsible in keeping an operation or production run
smoothly by making sure that all the materials and tools needed are available.
2. Financial Controller is responsible in checking the availability of budget to make sure
action on the submitted requests.
3. General Manager is in charge of checking the request submitted.
Bill of Materials - is a hierarchical list of components needed to build or manufacture a product
and to create an assembly.
1. BOM level each part or assembly must be assigned with a number.
2. Part Number each part must be assigned a number as their references for easier
identification.
3. Part Name a unique name for each part must be included in the BOM.
4. Phase this will determine where the part of the cycle is.
5. Quantity a record of the number of parts to be used in each assembly or sub-assembly
that helps one in purchasing and manufacturing decisions and activities.
6. Unit of Measure consistency in the units being used to describe each part is very
important.
7. Description a detailed description of each part is essential in a BOM since it will
differentiate a part from the others.
8. Procurement Type different part can be purchase or made through different forms and
method.
9. Reference Designators are sequenced comments and instruction that pertain to a
component.
10. BOM Notes relevant and important notes, details and information must be part of a bill
of materials to guide everyone who uses or makes the bill of materials as references.
Procurement - the act and process of buying or obtaining a product, item, tool or material that
start with preparation and processing of request and witch end in receiving and paying order.
Receiving and Inspecting Materials
1. Keep all delivery receipts to verify that the details on it match with what was purchase
or ordered, received and written on other supporting documents.
2. Verify count to protect against loss or damage.
3. Examine all materials and tools delivered for and damages.
Receiving Orders with Damage or Discrepancy

14. 1. For damage tools and materials, the receiving person can give the shipper a call to inform
of the damage.
2. For quality discrepancy, could be less or more than the amount you ordered, the shipper
must be informed. Settle with them what to do with the item.
3. For incorrect items deliver, counter-check the items listen on delivery receipt.
Immediately in form the shipper of any discrepancy.
Lesson III: Performing Menstruation and Calculation
Board foot – is the unit of measure for rough lumber ( before drying and planning with no
adjustments or planned / surfaced lumber.
Calculating Board feet
Board footage is used to determine volume. This unit of measurement is most
often used to determine the size of the lumber or other materials. Board feet is equal to 144
cubic inches of wood. One may use a tape measure to take measurements. Then multiply the
light, with, and thickness and then divide by 144.
Board feet = length x width x thickness
144
LESSON IV: PRACTICIING OHS PROCEDURES
Hazards and Risks Identification
Hazards - is anything that can cause harm, injury, illness and damage to one self or to a
property.
Risks -The probability or chance that a hazard will occur.
Kick-back Hazard -this happens when the wood twists and binds against the side of the blades
or caught in the teeth.
So-called noise Hazards- this hazards is mainly brought by sounds produce by motors, gears,
belts and pullets and other moving parts.
Vibration Hazards-this hazards is caused by too much exposure to vibration like in machines
that are not well maintained and tools that are not alternate.
Wood dusts- carcinogens hazards-this hazards had long been associated to different adverse
health effects such as dermatitis, allergic respiratory effects , mucosal and non-allergic
respiratory effects and cancer.
Chemical hazard-this hazard is brought of exposure to coating, finishing , adhesives and
others.
Hazards and risks assessment

15. Hazards assessment-is process whereby a workplace is evaluated for any potential hazards
that may affect the workers.
Risks assessment-Is the evaluation of the probability and consequences of any identified
hazards.
There are various accident prevention signs and tags .these signs and symbols are divided
into parts which convey different meanings.
Danger sign - this sign is used when there is a presence of immediate hazards. Usually, danger
sign is printed in red, black and white color.
Caution sign- is normally printed in black and yellow color, the upper panel is the one in black
color white the letters are the ones printed in yellow .This signs warns people at risk of hazards
or unsafe practice.
Safety Instruction Sign- This sign is used where general instructions or guidelines are
required.
Radiation Hazards Signs- This sign has a conventional magenta or purple on yellow background
color. This has the standard radiation symbol.
Biological Hazard Sign- This sign informs the people at risk of the presence of biological
hazards.
Exit sign- it directs one to the door or point of scape paths. This sign must be easily
recognized and distinguishable.
LESSON V: Gluing and Finishing
I. Introduction
Paints are used to prolong the serviceable life of the materials and it improves their
appearance. It seals the surface against the attacks of deteriorating agencies such as moisture,
air and insects. It poisons wood against fungus growth and other minute organisms causing it to
decay.
Painting must be done during warm and dry weather, and when it is not too windy or dusty.
Successful painting depends upon the proper selection of brush.
Blistering
Is caused by moisture in the wood which comes out of it in the form of bubbles. As these
blisters dry, the paint cracks and peels off. To prevent this, the wood must be thoroughly dried
before painting. Peeling will also occur when the priming coat, which causes too rapid drying and
poor penetration.
Running or sagging
Is caused by using too much oil in the paint. The excess oil does not adhere perfectly to
the surface, when dried.

16. Crawling
Is a condition where paint does not stay brushed out evenly on a surface. It is caused by
painting over a greasy or glossy surface. In the case of grease, the surface must be washed
with gasoline. If glossy, the surface should be roughened with sandpaper.
Checking
Is the formation of a network of fine hairlines in the last coat of paint. This is caused by
applying the last coat before the previous coat was thoroughly dried.
Chalking
Is caused by decay of the linseed oil in the paint. Some spots in wood require more
linseed oil than other spots, if not enough has been supplied on the priming coat. These spots
will absorb oil from the following coats and will not leave enough for the later coats to dry and
harden. The paint then becomes chalky and wears off easily.
Painting metal
The first step is to have metal paint from your hardware. This is different from wood
paint, for it contains for its base red lead instead of white lead as in wood paint. The metal
paint is less oil but uses more drier. Sometimes, ot contains more varnish to give better and
more durable wearing surface. As in the case of painting wooden surfaces, the metal surface
must be free of grease, old loose paint, or loose rust before applying the paint.
Skills and practices to be developed in painting and finishing
1. The brush should be held with the long part of the handle resting in the hollow between
the thumb and the first finger.
2. The finger should not extend down on the bristles.
3. The bristles should be dipped into the paint about one-third of their length.
4. Excess paint is removed by gently tapping the brush against the side of the pail or by
wiping over the inside edge of the pail.
5. The paint should be applied to the surface will long, sweeping strokes, usually with grain.
6. The brush should be brought down against the surface gradually at the beginning of the
stroke and lifted gradually at the end of the stroke.
7. The paint should be brushed out well to form a thin even coating.
8. Paint only during warm and dry weather.
9. Do not add much turpentine to the paint, for it will cause the surface to be dull instead
of glossy upon drying.
10. Varnish should always be applied with a high grade clean brush.

17. 11. Two thin coats are better than one heavy one.
12. All materials pertaining to painting and varnishing are inflammable and should not be
handled near an open flame.
LESSON VI:WOOD JOINTS
Wood joints- a joint formed by two boards, timbers, or sheet of woods that are held together.
1. Straight Plain Edge Joints- is more less readily made a power jointer. This joint has
many uses and it commonly used to build up wide boards for panels, shelves etc. from
narow pieces.
a. Dowel Joint- is the simplest of all method of joining two pieces wood joining
together. Useful for pegging together, weaker, cheaper , composite material such as
laminate chipboard and were limited wood working are available.
b. Mitered Corner Joints- used mostly in making picture frames, and its normally cut at
45 degree angle.
c. Splice Joints- is a method of joining two members end to end in woodworking.
Type of splice joints
1. Half lap splice joint- is the simplest of splice joint and it commonly used to joint
structural members.
2. Bevel lap splice joint- variation of the half lap in the cheeks of the opposing
members are cut at an angle of 5 to 10 degrees.
3. Tabeled slpice joint- is another variation of the half lap. The cheeks are cut with
interlocking surfaces so thar when brought together the joint resist being pulled
apart.
4. Tapered finger splice joint- this joint is commonly used in the production of
building materials from smaller offcuts of timber.
2. Butt joints- is a joinery technique in which two members are joint by simply butting them
together. It also the weakess because unless some form of reinforcement is used it
relies upon the glue alone hold together.
a. Nailed butt joint- this is the common form of the butt joint in building construction.
b. Dowel reinforced butt joint- or simply butt joint has very common method of
reinforcing butt joints in furniture.
c. Biscuit reinforced butt joint- it is used primarily in carcase and frame construction.
A small biscuit is used to help align an edge or butt joint when gluing.
d. Screwed butt joint- uses one or more screws inserted after the joint has been
brought together. The screws are ussually inserted into an edge on the long grain side

18. of one member and extend through the joint into the end of grain of the adjustment
member. This joint may also be glued although it is not necessary.
e. Joinery
f. - is a part of woodworking that involves joining together pieces of wood, to produce
more complex items.
g. Lapjoints
h. - is a technique of joining of two pieces of materials together by overlapping them.
i. TYPICAL LAP JOINTS
j. *End lap *Cross lap *Middle lap *half lap
k.
l. RABBET JOINT- is a cut across the edge of stock. Commonly used in drawers.
m.
n. DADO JOINT-is a groove cut across the grain and will receive the butt end piece. - a
dado joint is a cut to the width of the stock that will fit in it and to a depth of my
half the thickness of the material. Common joint in construction and is usea for
installation of shelves, stairs and kitchen cabinets.
o.
p. SCARFJOINT-is a made up of cutting away the ends of two pieces of timber and by
champering, halving, notching, or sloping making them fit together without increasing
the thickness and the splice. They may be held by gluing, bolting, platting or strapping.
q. FORMS OF SCARF JOINTS
r. COMPRESSION- this is the simplest form of scarf.
s.
t. TENSION- there are various methods of ''locking'' joints to resist tension, such as
by means of keys, wedges, or called keys or fish plates with finger.
u.
v. BENDING- when a beam is acted on by transverse or bending stress, the side on
which the bending forced is applied subjected to a tension r t

19. w.
Mortise and tenon
A stub (the tenon) will fit tightly into a hole cut for it (the mortise). This is a hallmark of
Mission Style furniture, and also the traditional method of jointing frame and panel members in
doors, windows, and cabinets. This joint is a good strong joint to use.
A mortise is a cavity cut into a timber to receive a tenon. There are several kinds of mortise:
Open mortise
a mortise that has only three sides. (See bridle joint).
Stub mortise
a shallow mortise, the depth of which depends on the size of the timber; also a mortise
that does not go through the workpiece (as opposed to a "through mortise").
Through mortise
a mortise that passes entirely through a piece.
Wedged half-dovetail
a mortise in which the back is wider, or taller, than the front, or opening. The space for
the wedge initially allows room for the tenon to be inserted; the presence of the wedge,
after the tenon has been engaged, prevents its withdrawal. It is sometimes called a
"suicide" joint, since it is a "one-way trip".
Through-wedged half-dovetail
a wedged half-dovetail mortise that passes entirely through the piece.
A tenon is a projection on the end of a timber for insertion into a mortise. Usually the tenon is
taller than it is wide. There are several kinds of tenon:
Stub tenon

20. short, the depth of which depends on the size of the timber; also a tenon that is shorter
than the width of the mortised piece so the tenon does not show (as opposed to a
"through tenon").
Through tenon
a tenon that passes entirely through the piece of wood it is inserted into, being clearly
visible on the back side.
Loose tenon
a tenon that is a separate part of the joint, as opposed to a fixed tenon that is an
integral part of one of the pieces to be joined.
Biscuit tenon
a thin oval piece of wood, shaped like a biscuit
Pegged (or pinned) tenon
the joint is strengthened by driving a peg or dowel pin through one or more holes drilled
through mortise side wall and tenon; this is common in timber framing joints
Tusk tenon
a kind of mortise and tenon joint that uses a wedge-shaped key to hold the joint
together.
Teasel (or teazle) tenon
a term used for the tenon on top of a jowled or gunstock post, which is typically received
by the mortise in the underside of a tie beam. A common element of the English tying
joint.
Top tenon
the tenon that occurs on top of a post.
Hammer-headed tenon
a method of forming a tenon joint when the shoulders cannot be tightened with a clamp.
Half shoulder tenon
An asymmetric tenon with a shoulder on one side only. A common use is in framed, ledged
and braced doors.
DOVETAIL
are used principally in cabinetmaking, drawer fronts, and fine furniture work. They are a
partly housed and tapered form of tenon joint in which the taper forms a lock to HOLD the
PARTS TOGETHER SECURELY.
The various forms of Dovetail Joints, may be classed as:
1. Common Dovetail Joint
2. Compound Dovetail Joint
3. Lap or Half-Blind Dovetail Joint
4. Blind Dovetail Joint
Common Dovetail Joint
This is a plain, or single “pin,” joint.

21. Compound Dovetail Joint
This is the same as the common form but has more than one pin, thereby adapting the
joint for use with wide boards.
Two (2) methods are commonly followed, when making this Compound Dovetail Joint.
1. Some mark and cut the pins first.
2. Others mark and cut the socket first.
Lap or Half-Blind Dovetail Joint
This joint is used in the construction of drawers on the best grades of work. The joint is
visible on one side but not on the other.
Blind Dovetail Joint
this is a double lap joint; that is, the joint is covered on the both side, and sometimes
called a “secret dovetail joint”.
Spacing
the maximum strength would be gained by having the pins and sockets equal.
TONGUE & GROOVE JOINT
in this type of joint, the tongue is formed on the edge of one of the pieces to be joined,
and the groove is formed in the other.