1. History
History to Independence
Sighted by Christopher Columbus in 1494, Jamaica was conquered and settled in 1509 by Spaniards
under a license from Columbus's son. Spanish exploitation decimated the native Arawaks. The island
remained Spanish until 1655, when Admiral William Penn and Robert Venables captured it; it was
formally ceded to England in 1670, but the local European population obtained a degree of autonomy.
Jamaica prospered from the wealth brought by buccaneers, notably Sir Henry Morgan, to Port Royal, the
capital; in 1692, however, much of the city sank into the sea during an earthquake, and Spanish Town
became the new capital.
A huge, mostly African, slave population grew up around the sugarcane plantations in the 18th cent.,
when Jamaica was a leading world sugar producer. Freed and escaped slaves, sometimes aided by the
maroons (slaves who had escaped to remote areas after Spain lost control of Jamaica), succeeded in
organizing frequent uprisings against the European landowners. The sugar industry declined in the 19th
cent., partly because of the abolition of slavery in 1833 (effective 1838) and partly because of the
elimination in 1846 of the imperial preference tariff for colonial products entering the British market.
Economic hardship was the prime motive behind the Morant Bay rebellion by freedmen in 1865. The
British ruthlessly quelled the uprising and also forced the frightened legislature to surrender its powers;
Jamaica became a crown colony.
Poverty and economic decline led many blacks to seek temporary work in neighboring Caribbean areas
and in the United States; many left the island permanently, emigrating to England, Canada, and the
United States. Indians were imported to meet the labor shortage on the plantations after the slaves were
freed, and agriculture was diversified to lessen dependence on sugar exports. A new constitution in 1884
marked the initial revival of local autonomy for Jamaica.
Despite labor and other reforms, black riots recurred, notably those of 1938, which were caused mainly
by unemployment and resentment against British racial policies. Jamaican blacks had been considerably
influenced by the theories of black nationalism promulgated by the American expatriate Marcus Garvey.
A royal commission investigating the 1938 riots recommended an increase of economic development
funds and a faster restoration of representative government for Jamaica. In 1944 universal adult suffrage
was introduced, and a new constitution provided for a popularly elected house of representatives.
An Independent Nation
By 1958, Jamaica became a key member of the British-sponsored West Indies Federation. The fact that
Jamaica received only one third of the representation in the federation, despite its having more than half
the land area and population of the grouping, bred resentment; a campaign by the nationalist labor
leader Sir Alexander Bustamante led to a 1961 decision, by popular referendum, to withdraw from the
federation. The following year Jamaica became an independent member of the Commonwealth.
Bustamante, leader of the JLP, became the first prime minister of independent Jamaica. The party
continued in power under Donald B. Sangster after the 1967 elections; he died in office and was
succeeded by Hugh Shearer.
In 1972 the PNP won an impressive victory, and Michael Manley became prime minister. Although the
PNP administration worked effectively to promote civil liberties and reduce illiteracy, economic problems
proved more difficult. In 1976 the PNP won decisively after a violent election contest between the two
parties. The PNP continued to promote socialist policies, nationalizing businesses and strengthening ties
to Cuba. Lack of foreign investment and aid continued to hurt the economy.

2. In 1980 the JLP returned to power, with the moderate Edward Seaga as prime minister. Seaga's
administration favored privatization, distanced itself from Cuba, attracted foreign investment, stimulated
tourism, and won substantial U.S. aid. However, two major hurricanes (1980, 1988) during Seaga's
tenure set back prospects for substantial economic progress. In the 1989 elections the PNP ousted the
JLP, and Manley returned as prime minister; he chose to continue the policy directions taken by Seaga.
Manley was replaced by P. J. Patterson in 1992. The following year Patterson and the PNP were
returned to office in a landslide. Patterson led his PNP government to a third term in 1997 and a fourth
term in 2002, although the PNP majority was reduced in 2002. Patterson retired as prime minister in
2006 and was succeeded by the PNP's Portia Simpson-Miller, who became the first woman to hold the
office. In the Sept., 2007, parliamentary elections, the PNP narrowly lost to the JLP, now led by Bruce
Golding, who became prime minister.
Historical People:
Manley, Norman Washington
Manley, Norman Washington, 1893–1969, prime minister of Jamaica (1959–62); father of Michael
Manley. Of Irish and African descent, he was educated at Oxford and became an internationally known
lawyer. He founded the moderately socialist People's National party in 1938, and, with his cousin,
Alexander Bustamante, dominated Jamaican politics for several decades. He served as chief minister of
Jamaica (1955–59) before being designated prime minister. He pushed land reform and encouraged
economic growth, especially in the bauxite and tourist industries. He was the architect of the short-lived
West Indies Federation (1958–62; see under West Indies).
Manley, Michael Norman
Manley, Michael Norman, 1924–97, prime minister of Jamaica (1972–80, 1989–92); son of Norman
Manley. A leader of the socialist People's National party, he was first elected to parliament in 1967.
Winning a landslide victory in 1972, he shifted Jamaican politics to the left, establishing close relations to
Cuba, nationalizing industry, and denouncing U.S. imperialism. He was reelected in 1976, but in 1980
lost to conservative Edward Seaga. Manley was returned to power in 1989, this time leading a more
moderate government and encouraging foreign investment. Following serious illness, he resigned in
1992.
Garvey, Marcus
Garvey, Marcus, 1887–1940, American proponent of black nationalism, b. Jamaica. At the age of 14,
Garvey went to work as a printer's apprentice. After leading (1907) an unsuccessful printers' strike in
Jamaica, he edited several newspapers in Costa Rica and Panama. During a period in London he took
law classes and became interested in African history and black nationalism. His concern for the problems

3. of blacks led him to found (1914) the Universal Negro Improvement Association and in 1916 he moved to
New York City and opened a branch in Harlem. The UNIA was an organization designed “to promote the
spirit of race pride.” Broadly, its goals were to foster worldwide unity among all blacks and to establish
the greatness of the African heritage. The organization quickly spread in black communities throughout
the United States, the Caribbean, and Central America, and soon had thousands of members.
Garvey addressed himself to the lowest classes of blacks and rejected any notion of integration.
Convinced that blacks could not secure their rights in countries where they were a minority race, he
urged a “back to Africa” movement. In Africa, he said, an autonomous black state could be established,
possessing its own culture and civilization, free from the domination of whites. Garvey was the most
influential black leader of the early 1920s. His brilliant oratory and his newspaper, Negro World, brought
him millions of followers. His importance declined, however, when his misuse of funds intended to
establish a steamship company that would serve members of the African diaspora, the Black Star Line,
resulted in a mail fraud conviction. He entered jail in 1925 and was deported to Jamaica two years later.
From this time on his influence decreased, and he died in relative obscurity.
Prime Ministers of Jamaica
Prime ministers
4 Jul 1959 - 29 Apr 1962 Norman Washington Manley
(s.a.) PNP
29 Apr 1962 - 23 Feb 1967 Sir William Alexander Bustamante
(s.a.) JLP
Feb 1964 - 23 Feb 1967 Donald Burns Sangster (b. 1911 - d.
1967) JLP
(acting for Bustamante)
23 Feb 1967 - 11 Apr 1967 Donald Burns Sangster
(s.a.) JLP
(from 6 Apr 1967, Sir Donald Burns Sangster)
11 Apr 1967 - 2 Mar 1972 Hugh Lawson Shearer (b. 1923 - d.
2004) JLP
2 Mar 1972 - 1 Nov 1980 Michael Norman Manley (1st time) (b. 1924 - d.
1997) PNP
1 Nov 1980 - 10 Feb 1989 Edward Philip George Seaga (b.
1930) JLP
10 Feb 1989 - 30 Mar 1992 Michael Norman Manley (2nd time)
(s.a.) PNP
30 Mar 1992 - 30 Mar 2006 Percival Noel James Patterson (b.
1935) PNP
30 Mar 2006 - 11 Sep 2007 Portia Simpson Miller (f) (b.
1945) PNP
11 Sep 2007 - 23 Oct 2011 Bruce Golding (b.
1947) JLP
23 Oct 2011 - Andrew Holness