Human Retroviruses are RNA viruses that contain the enzyme reverse transcriptase, allowing them to convert their RNA genome into DNA. The two major genera that affect humans are Lentiviruses, which include HIV-1 and HIV-2, and HTLV-BLV group, which includes HTLV-1 and HTLV-2. HIV binds host cells via gp120, enters via fusion, reverse transcribes into DNA then integrates into the host genome. It replicates using host cell machinery. Infection can lead to AIDS as CD4+ T cells are depleted. Opportunistic infections are treated with antiretrovirals that target reverse transcriptase and protease.

1. Human Retroviruses

2. Retroviruses
RNA viruses
single stranded, positive sense, enveloped, icosahedral.
Distinguished from all other RNA viruses by presence of an unusual
enzyme, reverse transcriptase.
Retro = reversal
RNA is serving as a template for DNA synthesis.
Two genera of human interest
Lentivirus Lentus = slow
Human immunodeficiency viruses 1 & 2 (HIV-1 & -2)
Human T-cell lymphotropic virus-bovine leukemia virus group
(HTLV-BLV)
Human T-cell leukemia viruses 1 & 2 (HTLV-1 & -2)

3. Structure
The viral envelope formed from host cell membrane;
contains 72 spiked knobs. These consist of a
transmembrane protein TM (gp 41), which is linked to
surface protein SU (gp 120) that binds to a cell receptor
during infection. The virion has cone-shaped,
icosahedral core, containing the major capsid protein CA
(p24). Between capsid and envelope is an outer matrix
protein, MA (p17).
Two identical copies of positive sense ssRNA genome
(retroviruses are diploid).
Enzymes: reverse transcriptase, integrase and protease.

4. HIV particles

5. HIV particles

7. HIV Genome
Three major genes
 Gag gene codes for CA, MA and NC proteins
 Pol gene codes for reverse transcriptase,
protease, integrase and ribonuclease.
 Env gene codes for TM and SU

8. HIV Replication
The first phase of viral entery, reverse transcription and integration into
host genome is accomplished by viral proteins.
The second phase of synthesis and processing of viral genomes, mRNAs
and structural proteins, uses host cell machinery.
 Attachment to specific cell surface receptor: gp120 binds CD4
molecule on the helper T cells, monocytes and dendritic cells
 Viral entery.
 Reverse transcription of viral RNA into DNA. The resulting double
stranded DNA is called provirus.
 Integration of provirus into host cell DNA. The viral integrase cleaves
the chromosomal DNA and covalently inserts the provirus. The
insertion site is random.
 Transcription and translation of viral DNA sequences. The provirus is
transcribed into a full length mRNA by the cell RNA polymerase II.
 Assembly and maturation of progeny virus.

10. HIV
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS) was first reported in US in 1981.
By 1984, AIDS was recognized as an
infectious disease caused by a virus.

11. Transmission of HIV
 Sexual contact: HIV is present in semen and vaginal
secretions; either homoxesual or heterosexual contact
 Transfusions: whole blood, plasma, clotting factors or
cellular fractions of blood.
 Contaminated needles: accidentally or sharing needles
by drug users.
 Perinatal: Transplacental, during delivery or via breast
milk.

12. Pathogenesis and clinical significance (1)
 Initial infection:
 genital tract macrophages
 HIV disseminates via blood
 Dendritic cells in lymphoid tissue
 CD4+ lymphocytes
 Acute phase viremia: several weeks after the initial infection, 1/3 – 2/3
of individuals experience an acute disease syndrome similar to infectious
mononucleosis. Circulating antibody appears in 1 – 10 weeks after the
initial infection (seroconversion).
 Latent period: lasts from months to many years (average 10 years).
During this period, 90% of HIV proviruses are transcriptionally silent.
Although there is continous loss of CD4+ cells in which HIV is
replicating, active replacement through stem cell multiplication is
occurring. The infection remains clinically asymptomatic as long as the
immune system is functional.

13. Pathogenesis and clinical significance (2)
 Clinical complications during the latent period: there are multiple
non-specific conditions such as persistent generalized
lymadenopathy, diarrhea, chronic fevers, night sweats and weight
loss. The more common opportunistic infections such as herpes
zoster and candidiasis may occur repeatedly during this period.
The CD4+ cell count remains normal or gradually declines but is
greater than 200 / ul. Progression from asymptomatic infection to
AIDS is not sudden.
 AIDS: Coinfection with HHV-6 can transactivate transcription from
the silent HIV provirus, increasing HIV replication. Any stimulation
of an immune response causing activation of resting T cells also
activates HIV replication. Appearance of HIV mutants with altered
antigenic specificity which are not recognized by the existing
humoral antibody or cytotoxic T lymphocytes; also contributes to
progression with CD4+ count falling below 200 / ul and
appearance of serious diseases and opportunistic infections.

14. Opportunistic Infections (1)
Bacteria:
 Mycobacterium avium complex
 Disseminated miliary disease
 Chronic bronchitis, pneumonia
 Chronic osteomyelitis, renal infection
 Mycobacterium tuberculosis
 Chronic pneumonitis, osteomyelitis
 Meningitis, miliary disease
 Streptococcus pneumoniae
 Salmonella spp.
 Haemophilus influenza (pneumonia)
 Campylobacter spp. (diarrhea)
 Shigella spp. (diarrhea)

15. Opportunistic Infections (2)
Fungi:
 Candida spp. Oral, vaginal or systemic candidiasis
 Histoplasma capsulatum (disseminated disease)
 Cryptococcus neoformans (meningitis)
Pneumocystis carinii
 Unicellular eukaryote
 Taxonomic status is uncertain
 Most common opportunistic pathogen in AIDS
patients
 Fatal pneumonia

16. Opportunistic Infections (3)
Parasites:
 Toxoplasma gondii (focal encephalitits)
Viruses:
 HHV-8 (Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus)
 HSV (oral, genital ulcers)
 JCV (progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy,
affect the white matter of the brain)
 CMV (Chorioretinitis, encephalitis, enterocolitis,
gastritis)

17. Malignancies associated with AIDS
 Kaposi’s sarcoma HHV-8
 Lymphomas EBV

20. Laboratory Diagnosis
Antigen / antibody detection
 ELISA, serum
 HIV-1 & -2 antibodies, HIV-1 CA (p24) antigen
 Screening of blood donors
 Western Blotting
PCR
 Viral RNA or DNA provirus
 Blood or tissue specimens
 Quantitative PCR (viral load): to determine disease
stage and treatment follow up.

21. ELISA for HIV antibody
Microplate ELISA for HIV antibody: coloured wells
indicate reactivity

22. Western blot for HIV antibody
 There are different criteria
for the interpretation of HIV
Western blot results e.g.
CDC, WHO, American Red
Cross.
 The most important
antibodies are those against
the envelope glycoproteins
gp120, and gp41
 p24 antibody is usually
present but may be absent
in the later stages of HIV
infection

24. Treatment
 Anti-retroviral drugs
 Reverse transcriptase inhibitors
 Protease inhibitors
 Multidrug therapy
 RT has no proofreading activity, resulting in production of many
errors during viral DNA synthesis which leads to mutations in all
HIV genes and accumulation of mutant viral strains. In presence
of an antiviral drug, there is strong selection for mutations that
confer resistance to that drug. Use multidrug therapy
 Early therapy
 Viral load is a prognostic indicator of the rate of progression to
AIDS. Infection should be treated as aggressively and as early
as possible to minimize initial spread of the virus and give a
lower chance for mutants to arise.

25. Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART)
Nucleoside analog reverse transcriptase inhibitors
 Act by serving as a chain terminator
 Zidovudine (AZT)
 Didanosine (ddi)
 Lamivudine (3TC)
Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors
 Act by targeting the enzyme itself
 Efavirenz
 Delaviridine
 Nevirapine
Protease inhibitors
 Interfere with the processing of polyproteins in the budding
virion, resulting in non-infectious particle.
 Ritonavir
 Amprenavir
 Indinavir
 Lopinavir

26. Drug resistance through viral mutations is a major
problem in treatment of HIV patients

27. Prevention
 Vaccine: not yet available
 Blood supply screening
 Perinatal transmission: AZT therapy

28. HTLV
 HTLV-1 and -2 have 65% nucleotide
sequence homology
 Genetically and biologically similar
HTLV-1
 Adult T-cell leukemia
 HTLV-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis
HTLV-2
 Hairy cell leukemia

29. Transmission
 Vertical transmission
 Sexual
 Blood products

30.  Hairy cell leukemia
 a rare lymphocytic
leukemia, of B cell
origin; caused by
HTLV-2. it is
characterized by
malignant cells that
look ciliated.

31. Laboratory diagnosis
 Screening of blood donors using ELISA
 Confirmation by western blotting
 PCR