2. NORMAL BODY TEMPERATURE
• The hypothalamus is the heat-regulating center of
the body
• The normal body temperature ranges from 37.0
degree C and 37.5 degree C
• Evening temperatures being 0.5 degree C higher
than in the morning.
• Rectal temperature>oral temperature (0.4 degree C)
>axillary temperature (1 degree C)
3. • A rectal temperature with a glass- mercury or
digital-electronic thermometer is considered the
gold standard for taking temperatures
• Liebermeisters rule -The pulse rate rises about 15
beats/min for each degree centigrade rise of fever
4. FEVER
• Fever is a controlled increase in body
temperature above the normal hypothalamic
set point
• A rectal temperature of 38 degree C or more
(100.4 degree F)
• A temperature of 40 degree C or more is
termed as hyperpyrexia
8. PATTERNS OF FEVER
Intermittent fever - Fever that touches the
baseline for a few hours during the day.
• Seen in malaria, acute pyelonephritis, local
boils,furuncles,kala azar,sepsis
9. • Types of intermittent fever :
- Quotidian fever, with a periodicity of 24 hours,
typical of Plasmodium falciparum
- Tertian fever,with a 48 hour periodicity,typical
of Plasmodium vivax or Plasmodium ovale
-Quartan fever,with a 72 hour periodicity,typical
of Plasmodium malariae
10.
11. Remittent fever - Fever that fluctuates by more
than 1.5 degree F but never touches the baseline
in 24 hours
• Seen in infective endocarditis
12. Continuous fever - Fever that never touches the
baseline in 24 hours and fluctuates by less than
1.5 degree F in a day.
• Seen in enteric fever,lobar
pneumonia,brucellosis,typhus.
13.
14. Pel-ebstein fever - Fever lasting for 3-10 days
followed by an afebrile period of 3-10 days
• Seen in hodgkins lymphoma
15. CLASSIFICATION OF FEVER
Fever with focus Fever without focus
Fever
without
localizing
signs
Fever of
unknown
origin
( refers to a rectal
temperature of 38 degree
C or higher as the sole
presenting feature)
16. FEVER OF UNKNOWN ORIGIN
• Children with fever,documented by a health care
provider,for which cause could not be identified
even after 3 weeks of evaluation as an outpatient
or after 1 week of evaluation in the hospital
17. CLASSIFICATION
• 4 categories :
1. Classic FUO
2. Health care associated FUO
3. Immune deficient FUO
4. HIV – related FUO
18. CLASSIC FUO
• Definition: fever of > 38 degree C ,lasted for > 3
wks, >2 visits or 1 wk in hospital
• Patient location : community , clinic or hospital
• Leading causes : cancer , infections , inflammatory
conditions, undiagnosed , habitual hyperthermia
• History emphasis : H/O travel , contacts , animal &
insect exposure , medications , immunization ,
family history , cardiac valve disorder
19. • Examination emphasis : oropharynx , temporal
artery , abdomen , lymph nodes , spleen , joints ,
skin , nails , genitalia , lower limb deep veins .
• Investigation emphasis : Imaging , biopsies ,
erythrocyte sedimentation rate , skin test
• Management : Observation , outpatient
temperature chart , investigations , avoidance of
empirical drug treatment
• Time course of disease : For months
20. HEALTH CARE ASSOCIATED FUO
• Definition : Fever of > 38 degree C ,lasted for > 1
week , not present or incubating on admission
• Patient location : Acute care hospital
• Leading causes : Hospital acquired infections ,
post- operative complications , drug fever
• History emphasis : Operation & procedures ,
devices used , anatomic considerations , drug
treatment
21. • Examination emphasis : Wounds , drains , devices
, sinuses , urine
• Investigation emphasis : Imaging , bacterial
cultures & other microbiological investigations
• Management : Depends upon situation
• Time course of disease : Lasts for weeks .
22. IMMUNE DEFICIENT FUO
• Definition : Fever of > 38 degree C , lasted for
> 1 wk & negative culture after 48 hrs
• Patient location : Hospital or clinic
• Leading causes : Majority are due to
infections but cause has been documented in
only 40-60%
• History emphasis : Stage of chemotherapy ,
drugs administered , underlying
immunosuppressive disorders
23. • Examination emphasis : Skin folds , IV sites ,
lungs, perianal area
• Investigation emphasis : Chest radiograph ,
bacterial cultures
• Management : Antimicrobial treatment
• Time course of disease : Lasts for days .
24. HIV – RELATED FUO
• Definition : Fever of >38 degree C , >3 wks for
outpatients , >1 wk for inpatients & HIV infection
confirmed
• Patient location : Community , clinic or hospital
• Leading causes : HIV (primary infection) , typical
& atypical mycobacteria , CMV , toxoplasmosis ,
cryptococcosis , lymphomas , immune
reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS)
• History emphasis : drugs,exposures,risk
factors,travel,contacts,stage of hiv infection
25. • Examination emphasis : Mouth , sinuses , skin ,
lymph nodes , eyes , lungs,perianal area.
• Investigation emphasis : Blood & lymphocyte
count , serologic tests , chest X-ray , stool
examination, biopsies of lung , bone marrow &
liver for cultures and cytologic tests , brain
imaging
• Management : Antiviral & antimicrobial
protocols , vaccines , revision of treatment
regimen , good nutrition
• Time course of disease : Lasts for weeks to
months
26. CAUSES OF PUO
•Infectious causes • Non infectious causes
Infectious causes
-> Bacterial –
salmonella,brucellosis,meningococcal,mycoplasma
pneumonia,TB,actinomycosis
-> Sphirochaetal -B burgdorferi ,leptospirosis ,relapsing
fever,syphillis
-> Parasitic-
amoebiasis,giardiasis,toxoplasmosis,babesiosis,malaria
-> Fungal-blastomycosis,histoplasmosis,coccidiodomycosis
27. -> Chlamydial -lym venereum,psittacosis
-> Rickettsial -Q fever,tick borne typhus,rocky
mountain spotted fever
-> Viruses –CMV,HIV,hepatitis
-> Local septic infection -dental abscess,subphrenic
abscess,sinusitis,tonsillitis,hepatic
abscess,bronchiectasis,mastoiditis
-> Local infection without pus formation -
UTI,ulcerative colitis ,diverticulitis,phlebitis,regional
enteritis
29. HISTORY
History should be taken from the child or reliable
informant
• AGE
-> 1-5 yrs - common causes are RTI,UTI,diarrhoea and
osteomyelitis
->5-10 yrs-measles,mumps,chicken pox,typhoid
->10yrs- TB, typhoid ,rheumatic fever
• GENDER -> Females-urinary tract infections,pelvic
infections
-> Males-allergic fever(hay fever), typhoid ,
tuberculosis,malaria
30. • ADDRESS -> endemic regions for malaria and
japanese encephalitis,epidemics,out breaks in
that area
• CHIEF COMPLAINTS -> History of fever and
other symptoms should be taken in
chronological order,give clue towards system
involved
eg:-
fever,dysuria ,loin pain –UTI
fever ,drowsiness ,convulsions - meningitis,
encephalitis
34. • PROGRESSION -> Viral fever peaks in 2 days and declines
-> Bacterial fever worsens day by day without treatment
-> Parasite fever like malaria shows cyclical cold,hot and
sweating stages.
• TYPE -> Continuous-Pneumonia ,uti
-> Remittent-Viral, collagen vascular diseases
-> Intermittent - Malaria , Brucellosis
-> Step ladder fever-Typhoid.
• Associated with ->
Chills and rigors- Malaria,brucellosis ,otitis media
Myalgia- brucellosis,dengue,bartonellosis
Sweating-Meningitis , TB ,Bacteraemia ,Malaria
35. • History of travel to endemic areas,how long,any
precautions.
• Epidemics in resident area
• Pets - toxoplasmosis,visceral larva migrans
• Contact with animals – leptospirosis,brucellosis
• Tick bites-relapsing fever, Q fever
• Blood transfusion - malaria,hepatitis-B
• Migrating joint pains - Rheumatic fever
• Loss of weight-malignancies
• History of recurrent fever,oral thrush -
immunocompromised
• Joint pains,rash,photosensitivity - autoimmune
36. • Past history - of surgeries(occult infection)
• Family history - similar complaints suggest
infectious disease,genetic background-familial
dysautonomia(recurrent hyperpyrexia)
• Personal history - diet -> unpasteurized
milk(brucellosis,TB),raw egg (salmonella)
• Loss of appetite - malignancies ,TB
• Immunization history - vaccination induced
fever. e.g,DPT,measles
• Treatment history - drug induced fever
37. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
• Careful and complete examination
• Repetitive examination to pick up subtle or new
signs
• Look for the child’s general appearance, built and
nourishment,
for temperature pattern ,
pulse rate –relative bradycardia in typhoid, meningitis
dengue,
Skin – look for rashes , petechiae, splinter
hemorrhages, subctaneous nodules
39. Tenderness to tapping over sinus – sinusitis
Oral cavity - Hyperemia of pharynx
Tender tooth –> periapical abscess
Recurrent oral candidiasis –> disorder of immune system
Neck - Enlargment or tenderness of thyroid gland –> thyroiditis
Heart- Murmur –> infective endocarditis
Abdomen –
Splenomegaly –> malaria, kala azar , CML
Abdominal tenderness -> pelvic abccess
Loin tenderness -> pyelonephritis
Hepatomegaly- > liver abscess , primary or metastatic malignancy
40. Muscle and bone –
Point tenderness- occult osteomyelitis or bone
marrow invasion from neoplasms
Painful and swollen joints – arthritis –> rheumatic
fever
Rectal examination – pelvic abscess,adenitis
41. INVESTIGATIONS
• On IP or OP basis,
determined on a case by case basis,
OP if chronic
• CBC,DC
• Urine analysis
• Blood smear
• ESR
• Serologic tests
• Tuberculin test
• Blood and urine culture
• Bone marrow examination( aspiration and biopsy)
• Xray ,2D ECHO,USG,CT , MRI , Radionuclide scans
43. BLOOD SMEAR -> WITH GIEMSA
OR WRIGHT STAIN
MALARIA
TRYPANOSOMIASIS
RELAPSING FEVER
BABESIOSIS
44. ESR >30 mm ->
inflammation -> further
evaluation
ESR >100 mm ->
TB/malignancy/autoimmune/
kawasaki disease
45. • BLOOD CULTURES –
- Normally aerobic culture is done as anaerobic
culture gives low yield
- Repeated culture done in case of infective
endocarditis and osteomyelitis
- Poly microbial infection suggests GI infection.
• RADIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION –
of sinuses,mastoid,GIT,chest
• SEROLOGIC TESTS – widal test,ANA,RF,
for inf mononucleosis,cmv,brucellosis,toxoplasmosis
46. • RADIONUCLEIDE SCANS - These are mainly
helpful in detecting abdominal abscess &
osteomyelitis and in multifocal disease.
• ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY - detects vegetations on
valve leaflets in infective endocarditis
• ULTRASONOGRAPHY detects intra- abdominal
abscesses of liver and spleen
• CT SCAN AND MRI - detection of neoplasms,CT
scan guided aspiration and biopsy,MRI for
detecting osteomyelitis
47.
48. FEVER WITHOUT LOCALIZING SIGNS
• Fever of acute onset,with duration of <1 wk and
without localizing signs is a common diagnostic
dilemma in children < 36 months of age .
• Etiology and evaluation of this type depends
upon age of the child
• 3 age groups are considered :
I. Neonates
II. Infants > 1 month to 3 months of age .
III. Children > 3 months to 3 yrs of age .
49.
50.
51. NEONATES
• Neonates having fever without focus show limited
signs of infection -> difficult to clinically distinguish
between a serious bacterial infection & self limited
viral illness
• Every febrile neonate has to be hospitalized
• 7% risk of having serious bacterial infection
(sepsis,meningitis,UTI,enteritis,osteomyelitis,
pneumonia,septic arthritis)
• Organisms responsible - Group B streptococcus &
Listeria(Late onset sepsis & meningitis) ,
Ecoli,HSV,Enterovirus
52. • Blood ,urine ,CSF should be cultured
• CSF study should include cell counts, glucose,
protein levels,gram stain & culture
• HSV & Enterovirus polymerase chain reaction
• Stool culture,chest radiograph
• Combination antibiotics- ampicillin and
cefotaxime is recommended,
acyclovir if HSV is suspected.
53. 1 MONTH TO 3 MONTHS
• Majority of the cases are of viral origin
• Respiratory syncytial virus and influenza A in
winter season
• Entero virus in summer
54. • Also suspect serious bacterial infections
• Common bacteria : Group B
streptococci,listeria,salmonella
enteritis,ecoli,pneumococus,meningococcus,
hiB,staph aureus
• Common conditions : Pyelonephritis > Otitis media
> Pneumonia > Skin and soft tissue infections
• Based on blood ,urine ,CSF cultures,these infants
are classified in to low and high risk groups
55.
56.
57. •With out
antibiotics
under close
observation
• Empirical
antibiotic
therapy
• Ampicillin plus
either ceftriaxone/
cefotaxime
• If CSF shows
abnormal findings,
vancomycin
included against
penicillin resistant
S.Pneumoniae
LOW RISK HIGH RISK
58. 3 MONTHS TO 36 MONTHS
• 30% of these infants with fever have no
localizing signs of infection
• Majority are viral but serious bacterial
infection do occur
• Pathogens are same as in 1 to 3 months of age
• S.pneumoniae,meningococcus,salmonella,hiB
account for most of occult bacteremia
59. • Risk factors indicating occult bacteremia
1.temperature >39° c
2.WBC count >15000/micro litre
3.elevated ANC,band count
4.elevated CRP
5.elevated ESR
• It may resolve spontaneously without sequelae
or can lead to localized infections like meningitis,
pneumonia etc
60. • Management :
Child 3-36 mo and temperature
38-39 ° C
Reassurance that diagnosis is
likely self-limiting viral
infection, but advise return if
fever persists,temperatures >
39 ° C and
new signs / symptoms
Child 3-36 mo and temperature
> 39 ° C
-Hospitalization and prompt
antimicrobial therapy based on
the blood, urine ,CSF cultures
• Immunize against Hib and S.pneumoniae with
conjugate vaccine
 If these measures are insufficient to make the blood temperature in the brain match the new setting in the hypothalamus, then shivering begins in order to use muscle movements to produce more heat. When the fever stops, and the hypothalamic setting is set lower; the reverse of these processes (vasodilation, end of shivering and nonshivering heat production) and sweating are used to cool the body to the new, lower setting.
Is a term applied to……….Petersdorf and Beeson Criteria- Fever higher than 38.3oC on several occasions.Duration of fever – 3 weeks.Uncertain diagnosis after one week of study in hospital