This document discusses qualitative research methods, specifically field research. It describes three general approaches to research: positivism, critical, and interpretive. It then discusses characteristics of qualitative research and different types of field research like ethnography, ethnomethodology, and phenomenological studies. The document outlines sampling methods, data collection techniques like observation and interviews, issues around validity and reliability, and both advantages and disadvantages of field research methods.
2. Introduction to qualitative
methodology
Data in words rather than numbers
Non-positivistic orientation
Includes:
Field research
Qualitative interviewing
Historical comparative analysis
3. Three General Approaches to
Research
APPROACH POSITIVISM CRITICAL INTERPRETIVE
USUAL TYPE experiment, historical- field research,
OF RESEARCH survey, comparative interview
cont. anal.
PERSPECTIVE technocratic transcendent transcendent
TYPE OF LOGIC reconstructed logic-in-practice logic-in-practice
PATH linear non-linear non-linear
/cyclical /cyclical
4. Characteristics of Qualitative
Research
Context is critical
In depth, detailed
Researcher immerses self in data (non-
objective)
Researcher integrity
Bias recognized
Use of grounded theory
Can detect process and sequence
Data are interpreted rather than analyzed
5. Elite Studies
Special type of field research
Elites difficult to study, especially with
quantitative methods
Preferred method is field study
But special problems
Gatekeepers
Need for connections/contacts
Danger of manipulation
Difficulty of establishing trust
6. Field research
Main types of Field Research are:
Ethnography
Ethnomethodology
Phenomenological Study
Purposes of field research:
Data collection
Theory construction
7. Ethnography
A way of building an understanding the
culture and behaviours of a group as a whole.
Done in a setting or field site where a group
of people share a common culture.
In sociology, ethnography usually called a
field study
Uses:
Participant Observation
Interviews with Informants
Examination of documents and cultural artifacts
9. Ethnomethodology
The study of commonsense knowledge
How do individuals make sense of social
situations and act on their knowledge?
What are the tacit rules used by members of
a culture?
Detailed studies of interactions
Breeching experiments (Garfinkel)
To uncover hidden norms
10. Phenomenological Study
Understanding an experience from a
research participant's point of view
Interview several participants as to their
perceptions of an experience
Try to build a picture of the experience
through using a combination of theories,
literature in the area, illustrated by anecdotes,
to build a detailed portrait of the experience
Use of Max Weber’s “verstehen”
11. Topics For Field Research
Topics that defy simple quantification.
Topics where attitudes and behaviours are best
understood within their natural setting.
Social processes that take place over time.
The study of meanings, practices, episodes,
encounters, roles, relationships, groups,
organizations, and settlements.
12. Sampling in field research
Types of nonprobability sampling methods
commonly used:
Quota sampling
Snowball sampling
Deviant cases
Purposive sampling or judgmental sampling
13. Main Methods Used in Field
Research:
Field research includes:
Case study approach
Participant observation and non-
participant observation
Intensive interviewing
14. The Case Study Approach
To try to develop an understanding of a social
process by studying one case or a small
number of cases in depth
Can be done using a combination of intensive
interviewing and observation
Snapshot case studies
Longitudinal case studies
Pre-post case studies
Patchwork case studies
Comparative case studies.
15. Observation in Field Research
Preparing for the field:
1. Background preparation and literature review
2. Talking to informants
3. Gaining entry into the group
Gatekeepers
Public vs. private settings
16. The Various Roles of the Observer
(Raymond Gold’s levels)
A. Complete participant
B. Participant-as-observer
C. Observer-as-participant
D. Complete observer
17. Recording observations
Field journal
To record empirical data
To record interpretations
Guidelines for note taking
Don't trust your memory
Take notes in stages
Record everything
18. Organizing and Writing Notes
Rewrite your notes as soon as possible after making
observations
type or enter into a word-processing program
Creating files helps organize field notes for analysis.
a. Chronological file as a master file.
b. Background files (from literature review, and
documentation of topic's history.)
c. Biographical files on key subjects in the study.
d. Bibliographical files of all references related to study.
e. Analytical files to categorize what you are observing.
f. Cross-reference files may be useful to retrieve data.
19. Using computers in field
research
some software programs are now available for
field research notes and analysis of data
Can save time, especially when analyzing data
See free demos of NVivo and XSight at:
http://www.qsrinternational.com/products_free-
trial-software.aspx
20. Data analysis in field work
Data analysis in field work is an ongoing
process
Constant interaction between data collection
and data analysis.
Look for:
Similarities, norms, and universals
Dissimilarities, differences, and deviations from
norms
Selective perception can be a problem as you
learn more about the topic
21. Asking Questions: The Field
Research Interview
Types of qualitative interviews:
Structured
Semistructured
Depth
Field research most often uses unstructured
interviews
The use of probes is important in field
research
22. Conducting interviews
Try to be interactive and sensitive to the language
and concepts used by the interviewee
Try to keep the agenda flexible
Aim to go below the surface of the topic being
discussed
Explore what people say in detail
Check you have understood respondents' meanings
Try to discover the interviewee's own framework of
meanings
Avoid imposing own structures and assumptions
Need to consider how perceived by interviewees and
the effects of characteristics such as class, race, sex,
and social distance on the interview
23. Types of questions for
qualitative interviews
Behaviour or experience
Opinion or belief
Feelings
Knowledge
Sensory
Background or demographic
25. Researcher as research instrument
Qualitative interviews require considerable
skill on the part of the interviewer.
The interviewer needs to notice how
directive he or she is being
Whether leading questions are being asked
whether cues are picked up or ignored
Whether interviewees are given enough time
to explain what they mean
26. Maintaining control of the
interview
Know what it is you want to find out
Ask the right questions to get the information
you need
Give appropriate verbal and non-verbal
feedback
Good feedback vs. bad feedback
Avoiding bias
27. Bracketing Your Biases
First, make a list of your characteristics:
1. your gender;
2. your age;
3. your ethnic or national identification;
4. your religion or philosophy of life;
5. your political party or orientation;
6. your favourite psychological theory.
Add four more characteristics: words or
phrases that are descriptive of you as an
individual.
28. Bracketing (cont.)
1. List ways in which your characteristics
might bias you in your efforts at research
interviewing.
2. Then write how you might counteract
these biases.
3. And then write how these efforts to
counteract your biases might themselves
lead to other biases!
29. Advantages of field research
Can study nonverbal behaviour
Flexibility
Natural environment
Longitudinal analysis
Relatively inexpensive
30. Disadvantages of field research
Not applicable to the investigation of large
social settings
Making generalizations can be problematic
Biases, attitudes, and assumptions of the
researcher can be problem
Selective perception and memory
Selectivity in data collection
Presence of the researcher may change the
system or group being studied
Virtually impossible to replicate the findings
31. Validity and Reliability
Validity very high
Can document complexity of human behaviour
Detailed descriptions
Reliability low
Subjective
Difficult to replicate
Low external validity (generalizability)