2. Background
Discovered by Banting and Best - 1921
Fredrick G. Banting & Charles H. Best -
Canadian Scientist – Extracted Insulin from Dog
pancreas
2 chain Polypeptide – 51 amino acids & MW
6000
Chain-A has 21 and Chain-B has 30 amino
acids – connected by two disulfide bonds
Source: Porcine, Bovine and Human (Pork =
human)
Synthesized in β cells of islets of pancreas –
single chain 110 amino acids (Preproinsulin)
Proinsulin – 86 amino acids
Connecting “C” peptide (35 amino acids)
removed by proteolysis in Golgi apparatus –
Insulin
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/268872215_fig3_Figure-3-Structure-of-
pro-insulin-showing-C-peptide-and-the-A-and-B-chains-of-insulin
3. DiabetesMellitus
• Hyperglycaemia, glycosuria, hyperlipidaemia, negative nitrogen balance
and ketonaemia
• Pathological changes: thickening of capillary basement membrane,
increase in blood vessel wall matrix, and cellular proliferation
• Consequences: Lumen narrowing, atherosclerosis, sclerosis of
glomerular capillaries, retinopathy, neuropathy and peripheral vascular
insuffficency
• Causes of pathological changes: Enhanced non-enzymatic glycosylation
of tissue proteins and accumulation of large amounts of sorbitol
• Glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c ) – Index of protein glycosylation
4. DiabetesMellitus- Types
• Type I: Insulin dependent DM (IDDM) / Juvenile onset diabetes – low circulating insulin level –
prone to ketoacidocis
– destruction of β cells in pancreatic islets
– Type IA – antibodies destroying β cells
– Type IB: Idiopathic, no β cell antibody detectable
– Low degree of genetic predisposition
• Type II Noninsulin-dependent DM (NIDDM): no loss of moderate loss of β cell, low/normal/high
insulin in circulation, no anti- β-cell antibody – genetic predisposition
• Causes: (1) Abnormality in gluco-receptor in β cell – needs higher conc. of glucose; (2)
Relative β cell deficiency
– Down regulation of insulin receptors in peripheral tissues
– Many Hypertensives are hyperinsulinaemic – normoglycaemic but dyslipidaemia,
hyperuricaemia, abdominal obesity (metabolic syndrome) – Insulin Resistance
– Excess of hyperglycamic hormones
• Other Types: Type III (!) – LADA and MODY; Type IV – Pancreactomy and gestational diabetes
mellitus (GDM)
5. Regulation of Secretion
Basal condition – 1 U per hour – more after meals
Regulated by – Chemical, hormonal and neural mechanisms
3. Neural: Sypmpathetic and vagal Nerve influennce in islets – (i) alpha-2 stimulation decreases insulin release (predominant)
(ii) beta-2 cell stimulation increases Insulin release; (3) Vagal stimulation increases Insulin relese – IP3DAG
1. Chemical (glucosensor) 2. Hormonal
Glucokinase
Glucosensor
Source: Essentials of Medical pharmacology by KD
Tripathi – 7th
Edition, JAYPEE, 2013
Source: https://courses.washington.edu/conj/bess/humoral/humoralregulation.htm
6. Actionsof Insulin
Meal derived glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and fuel storage
Major anabolic hormone – synthesis of glycogen, lipids and proteins
1. Facilitates glucose transport across cell membrane – skeletal muscle and fats - Liver, brain,
RBC, WBC and renal medullary cells are independent
2. Intracellular utilization of glucose – phosphorylation to form Glucose-6-PO4 – increased
production of glucokinase – also glycogen synthase
3. Inhibits gluconeogenesis from protein, FFA and glycerol (diverted to liver) – by decreasing
synthesis of (gene mediated) phosphoenol pyruvate carboxykinase.
4. Inhibits lipolysis in adipose tissues – favours triglyceride synthesis – in diabetes, increased FFA
and glycerol (Acetyl-CoA) – ketone bodies
5.Facilitates amino acid entry and their synthesis to protein – also inhibits protein breakdown in
muscles and other cells – in its absence excess pyruvate, glucose and urea (negative nitrogen
balance)
7. Insulin - mechanism of action
T – Tyrosine residue; GLUT4 – Glucose
transporter, IRS – Insulin receptor substrate
protein, T-PrK – Tyrosine protein kinase,
Ras – Regulator of cell division and
differentiation
Source: Essentials of Medical pharmacology by KD Tripathi – 7th
Edition, JAYPEE, 2013
8. Fateof Insulin
Distributed only extracellularly – given
orally gets degraded in GIT
Secreted and injected Insulin –
metabolized in liver, kidneys and muscles
First pass metabolism - 50% of Insulin
passing through portal vein
Degradation after receptor mediated
internalization
Biotransformation – sulfide bonds are
reduced – chain A and B are separated –
broken down to amino acids
Source - https://www.slideshare.net/aishahadalicia/insulin-and-its-mechanism-of-
action-31298888
9. Preparationsof Insulin
Classically – produced from beef and pork pancreas
Contains 1% (10, 000 ppm) other proteins – proinsulin, polypeptides,
pancreatic proteins etc.) – potentially antigenic
Replaced with highly purified pork/beef insulin/recombinant human
insulin/insulin analogues
Single peak and Monocomponent insulin (MC) – proinsulin <10 ppm –
stable, less resistance and lipodystrophy
Unitage/Assay: I U reduces fasting rabbit blood sugar by 45 mg/dl or
potency to induce hypoglycaemic convulsion in mice
I mg of International Standard of Insulin = 28 units
Radioimmunoassay or enzyme immunoassay
10. Typesof preparations– Regular (Soluble) Insulin
Buffered neutral pH solution unmodified insulin stabilized by small
amount of zinc
Forms hexamers around zinc ions – released slowly and gradually by
dilution on SC administration
Peak onset 2- 3 hours and lasts for 6-8 hours
Drawbacks:
Before meals – early postprandial hyperglycaemia and late post
prandial hypoglycaemia – injected ½ to 1 hour before
Do not provide basal level of action – interdigestive period
Slow onset of action is not applicable for IV injection
Long acting – modified or retard preparations
11. Insulin preparations- Purified
Rendered insoluble - complexed with protamine or excess zinc
Lente (Insulin-zinc suspension): 2 types
Ultrelente: Large particle size, crystalline and insoluble in water – long acting Semilente: Small particle
size, amorphous – short acting; Lente: 7:3 ratio mixture
Isophane (Neutral Protamine Hagedorn or NPH) insulin: Protamine added just
sufficient to complex all insulin molecules
Neither are in free form – neutral pH
On injection: dissociate slowly intermediate action
Used in combination with regular insulin in 70:30 ratio or 50:50
Injected twice daily before breakfast and dinner (split-regimen)
Available preparations: Highly purified MC pork regular insulin, highly purified MC pork
lente, Highly purified MC NPH, highly purified regular insulin and Isophane (30:70
ratio)
12. Human Insulin
Same amino acid sequence as human insulin - produced by recombinant DNA
technology
In Esche richia co li – proinsulin recombinant bacteria (prb) and in yeast – precursor
yeast recombinant (pyr) or by enzymatic modification of porcine insulin
Human actrapid (regular insulin) – 40 U/ml
Human monotard (lente), human insulatard (NPH), Human mixtard (30:50), Insuman
(50:50)
Advantages: More water soluble and hydrophobic, more rapid absorption than porcine
or bovine, more defined peak, shorter duration of action
13. Insulin analogues
Recombinant DNA technology, modified pharmacokinetic – greater stability and
consistency
Insulin lispro: Reversing Proline and lysine at B 28 and B 29 position – quick acting,
just before meals
Insulin aspart: B 28 is replaced by aspartic acid – mimics physiological insulin
Insulin glulisine: Replacing aspartic acid at B 23 by lysine and glutamic acid replacing
lysine at B 29 – continuous SC insulin infusion (CSII)
Insulin glargine: Long- acting – precipitates at neutral pH on SC injection – depot
created – slow dissociation – 24 hours low blood level – usually at bed time
14. Reactionsand Drug Interactions(DIs)
HYPOGLYCAEMIA: Labile diabetics
Causes: Injection of large doses, missing a meal after injection, vigorous exercise
Symptoms: Sweating, anxiety, palpitation, tremor – counter regulatory; dizziness,
headache, behavioural changes, visual disturbances, hunger, fatigue, weakness,
muscular incoordination etc. - due to deprivation - Below < 40 mg/dl – seizure and
coma
Treatment: Glucose orally and IV – Glucagon – 0.5 to 1 mg IV
Local reactions (swelling), lipodystrophy, Allergy, Oedema
Drug Interactions: Beta blockers (beta-2; prolong hypoglycaemia), Thiazides, diuretics,
steroids, OCPs (raises blood sugar), acute alcohol ingestion (hypoglycaemia –
glycogen depletion), Lithium and aspirin (hypoglycaemia – enhance insulin
secretion)
15. Usesof Insulin
Purpose: Restore metabolism to normal, avoid symptoms due to hyperglycaemia and
glycosuria and prevent complications
Indications: Type 1 DM, Post pancreatectomy diabetes and gestational diabetes; Type
2 DM: Not conrolled by diet and exercise, failure of oral hypoglycaemics, under wight,
tide over crisis and complications (ketoacidosis)
Treatment: According to requirement and convenience of each patient – by testing
urine and blood glucose level
Type 1: usually 0.4 to 0.8 U/kg/day (severity and obesity)
Target: obtain basal control – no single daily dose of long/intermediate/short acting ones can fulfill
Multiple (2 – 4) injections daily of long and short acting or Long acting with Oral hypoglycaemics (meal
time)
Conventionally, split-m ixe d re g im e : mixture of regular with lente/isophane (30:70 or 50;50) – before
breakfast and before dinner
16. Usesof Insulin – contd.
Basal bolus regime: 3 - 4 daily injections - a long acting (glargine) insulin before
breakfast or before bed time with 2-3 meal time injections of short rapidly acting (lispro
or aspart)
Other uses: Diabetic Ketoacidosis (Coma), Hyperosmolar (non-ketotic
hyperglycaemic) coma
Insulin resistance: Type 2 DM, Age, large body fats, pregnancy, OCPs – acromegally,
Cushing`s syndrome, phaeochromocytoma etc.
Acute Insulin resistance: Infection, trauma, surgery, stress etc.
Newer Insulin Delivery devices: Insulin syringe, Pen devices, inhalled insulin, Insulin
pumps (CSII) etc.
17. Summary of Insulin preparations
Short acting: Regular soluble insulin – clear appearance; 6-8 hours – can be mixed
with others except glargine
Intermediate acting: Lente, NPH or Isophane – cloudy; 20-24 hours - Regular
Long acting: Glargine and detemir – clear; 24 hours – cannot be mixed with others
(can be combined)
Rapid acting: lispro, aspart, glulisine – clear; 3-5 hours – can be mixed with Regular
and NPH