2. Development
Anatomy
Septal diseases : deviated septum
septal perforation
septal fractures
involvement in systemic
diseases
3. DEVELOPMENT
Developin brain and pericardium forms two
prominent bulgings on the ventral aspect of
embryo separated by stomatodaeum
Mesoderm covering the forebrain forms a
downward projection : frontonasal process
Mandibular arch forms the lateral wall of the
stomatodaeum which gives off a bud nd grows
to form maxillary and mandibular process
4. Ectoderm in frontonasal
process forms b/l localized
thickenings to form nasal
placodes.
These sink below the surface
to form nasal pits.
Edges of the pit are raised to
form the medial and lateral
nasal process
5. Maxillary process grows
medially fuses with the
lateral nasal process and then
with the medial nasal
process
Medial and the lateral nasal
process fuse
6. Nasal septum develops with the fusion of maxillary
process and frontonasal process.
Initially its entirely cartilagenous, together with
triangular cartilages forms a cartilagenous structure
that supports the nose from the crista galli to the lower
third of nose
A midline ridge develops from the posterior edge of
frontonasal process in the roof of oral cavity and
extends posteriorly to the opening of the rathkes pouch
This becomes the nasal septum which is continuous
with the partition anteriorly between the primitive
nasal cavities
7. On either side of the anterior septum, an invagination
of ectoderm forms the vomeronasal organ :
rudimentary in humans
Longitudinal strips of cartilage 7-15mm in length may
be identified in embryos lyin adjacent to the
vomeronasal organ on either side of the septal cartilage
Cephalic part of septum ossifies from the
perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone.
Vomer develops in the tissues covering the
posteroinferior part of septal cartilage
8. Two ossification centres appear for vomer at 8th
week on eithr side of cartilage uniting to form a
deep groove in which the cartilage sits
Nasal bones arise during 10th and 11th weeks
9. ANATOMY
NASAL SEPTUM HAS 3 PARTS :
COLUMELLAR : Columellar septum. It is
formed of columella
Containing the medial crura of alar cartilages
united together by fibrous tissue and covered on
either side by skin.
10. Membranous septum. It consists of double layer of
skin with no bony or cartilaginous support. It lies
between the columella and the caudal border of
septal Cartilage. Both columellar and membranous
parts are freely movable from side to side.
11. Septum proper. It consists of osteocartilaginous
framework, covered with nasal mucous membrane.
Cartilagenous portion composed of quadrilateral
cartliage, contributions from lower and upper
lateral cartilages.
12.
13. Quadrilatral cartilage(Septal cartilage) not only forms a
partition between the right and left nasal cavities but also
provides support to the tip and dorsum of cartilaginous
part of nose.
Septal cartilage lies in a groove in the anterior edge of
vomer and rests anteriorly on anterior nasal spine
Its destruction leads to drooping of nasal tip and
depression of nose
is 3-4 mm thick in its centre and increases to 4-8 mm
anteroinferiorly, this is called the footplate
Similar expansion of cartilage can be seen posteriorly
known as lateral posterior process at the junction of
lateral nasal cartilage
Anteroinferior edge lies free in the columellar septum
14. It sits inferiorly in the nasal crest of the
palatine process of maxilla
Its anterosuperior margin is connected to the
posterior border of the internasal suture
Distal end of superior margin is connected by
fibrous tissue on each side to the medial crurae
of the major alar cartilage
Posterosuperior border is continuous with the
perpendicular plate of ethmoid
Posterior septal angle formed where septum
articulates with the nasal spine anteroinferiorly
15. A : Anterior septal
angle
B mid septal angle
C : posterior septal
angle
16. Bony septum : mainly by perpendicular plate
of ethmoid and vomer
Minor contributions : crest of nasal bone
nasal spine of frontal bone
rostrum of sphenoid
crest of palatine bone
crest of maxilla
anterior nasal spine of maxilla
17.
18. Bony septum: perpendicular plate of ethmoid forms
the superior and anterior bony septum, which is
continuous above with the cribriform plate and crista
galli.
Vomer defined as keel shaped bone, extends anteriorly
from spenoid and superiorly from nasal crest of
maxilla and palatine bone.
forms the posterior and inferior nasal septum and
articulates by its two alae with the rostrum of sphenoid
creating vomerinovaginal canals which transmit
pharyngeal branches of maxillary artery.
19. Inferior border of vomer articulates with nasal
crest formed by maxillae and palatine bones.
Anterior border articulates with perpendicular
plate of ethmoid and septal cartilage inferiorly.
Posterior border forms the free edge
20. ARTERIAL SUPPLY
Internal and external carotid system
Sphenopalatine artery : posteroinferior septum
Greater palatine artery anteroinferior part of
septum
Superior labial artery branch of facial artery
anterior and posterior ethmoid arteries
21.
22. Sphenopalatine artery : enters through the
sphenopalatine foramen and immediately
divides into posterior septal and posterior
lateral rami
Posterior septal branch runs medially across
the sphenoid to the posterior part of septum
Takes course anteroinferiorly in
mucoperichondrium
Terminal branches anastomose in littles area
23. Anterior ethmoid artery traverses the anterior
ethmoid canal, descends into cavity through slit
by the side of crista galli, runs along inner
surface of nasal bone and supplies the nasal
septum
Usually in a mesentry just below skull base
between ethmoid fovea and lamina papyracea
Posterior ethmoid artery enters posterior
ethmoid foramen situated 5mm anterior to
optic canal,
Gives nasal branches which enters nasal cavity
through the cribriform plate apertures and
anstomoses with sphenopalatine artery br.
24. Nerve supply
Maxillary division of trigeminal nerve
Nasopalatine nerves supplies bulk of nasal
septum
Enters via SPF passing medially across the roof
of upper septum and runs down and forwards to
incisive canal
Anterosup part is supplied by the anterior
ethmoidal branch of nasociliary nerve
Anteroinferior portion : anterior superior
alveolar nerve
Posteroinf : nerve from pterygoid canal and
posteroinferior branch of anterior palatine nerve
25.
26. Aetiopathogenisis:
-Trauma inflicted from front, side or below.the
septum may buckle on itself, fracture vertically,
horizontally or get crushed.
-fracture of septal cartilage or its dislocation can
occur without nasal bones fracture in cases of
trauma to lower nose.
29. Extent of deformity
Grade 0 : bones perfectly straight
Grade 1 : boones deviated less than half the
width of bridge of nose
Grade 2: deviated half to full width
Grade 3: deviated greater than one full width
Grade 4: bones almost touching cheek
30. Pattern of fracture
Class 1: chevallet
Low or moderate degrees of force
Extent of deformity is less
Simplest form is a depressed nasal bone
Fractured segment is in position due to its inferior
attachment to upper lateral cartilages
Nasal septum is not involved, except for in severe
injuries
31. Fracture line runs parallel to nasomaxillary
suture, then connects across to contralateral
side runs paralleljust below the dorsum
Cartilagenous septum is fractures 0.5 cm below
the dorsum may extend posteriorly into bony
septum through the perpndicular plate of
ethmoid
Children : greenstick fracture
32. Class 2 : jarjavay
Significant cosmetic
deformity
Fracture nasal bones with
frontal process of maxilla and
septum
Grade 2
Fracture begins just beneath
the nasal tip in quadrilateral
cartilage, extends posteriorly
through perp plate of ethmoid
to the anterior border of
vomer
And runs forward through
lower part of perpendicular
plate of ethmoid into inferior
part of quadrilateral cartialge
33. Frontal impact can cause gross flattening and
widening of dorsum
Lateral blow can cause a high deviation of
nasal skeleton
Perpendicular plate of ethmoid inevitably
involved
Correction of both septum and nasal bones for
proper cosmetic results
34. Class 3 : high velocity trauma
Naso orbital ethmoid fractures
Ass with # of maxilla
Quadrilateral cartilage falls back
Saddled nose, nostrils facing more anteriorly
like the snout of a pig
36. Signs : External deformity difficult to examine
in acute condition,
Better seen after the edema has reduced
Look for movements of eye
Palpate the nose to look for : deformity,
deviation, crepitus, mobility, any tenderness
Look for septal hematoma, abscess
Investigation : xray nasal bone
In severe facial injury : ct pns to be done
37.
38. Treatment
Most patients don’t need any active treatment
Reduction of fracture : under GA or LA
Principle for reduction : mobilize the fragments
first by increasing and then decreasing the
degree of deformity
An initial slight increase away from the side of
impact, followed by steady movement back
and then across the midline towards the side of
blow
39.
40.
41. Instruments : freer
hiller
ashe
walsham forceps
Splints may be necessary
42. Open reduction : b/l fractures with dislocation
of nasal dorsum and significant septal
deformity
Fractures of cartilagenous pyramid
Infraction of nasal dorsum
44. DEVIATED NASAL SEPTUM
Extremly common
May be present at birth
Etiology : trauma with or without nasal bone fractures
Birth mouldin theory given by Gray
Abnormal intrauterine postures with compression
forces acting on the nose and upper jaws
Post natal trauma
Childs nose is cartilagenous, any trauma can cause
irreversible deviation of cartilage
45. Types :
Spurs : sharp angulations occuring at the junction of
vomer below with the septal cartilage or ethmoid bone
above.
Usually a result of vertical forces
Fracture through the septal cartilage may also produce
spurs
46. Deviations
Cartilagenous, C or s
shaped deviations either
in vertical or horizontal
plane
Cartilagenous deviations
: upper bony septum and
bony pyramid is central,
deviation of the
cartilagenous part
47. C shaped: displacement
of upper bony septum to
one side and whole of
cartilagenous septum and
vault to opposite side
S shaped : deviation of
middle third is opposite
to that of lower and
upper one third
48. Disclocations : lower border
ofseptal cartilage displaced
from its median position and
projects into one of the
nostrils
49. Symptoms : nasal obstruction
Can be on the same side of the deviation or opposite
side because of the hypertrophic changes in turbinate
Snoring
Mucosal changes : dryness, crusting
Neurologic pain : pressure exerted by septal deviations
on adjacent sensory nerves
Anterior ethmoidal nerve syndrome
Deviations in region of nasal valve cause greatest
obstruction : cottle test
50.
51. History of septal surgery
19th century : dns was identified and treated
Acute spurs and angulations were removed by shaving
down convexities
Langenbeck 1843
Dieffenbach 1845
Chassaignac 1851
Or complete removal of deviation with punch forceps
Rubrent 1868
Resulted : perforations
52. Development of Submucus resection ( SMR )
1881 Ingalls : earliest
Refined by freers and killian
Freers 1902 : radical approach
Septal cartilage did not contribute to support of nasal
pyramid
Septal cartilage culd be completely removed
Saddling of dorsum in supratip region
53. Killian 1904 described technique of retention of both
dorsal and caudal struts of cartilage
Prevents any external change in shape
Septum is divided by a vertical line drawn from the
nasal process of frontal bone to nasal process of
maxilla, any deviations posterior to this corrected by
smr and anterior ones by septoplasty
Even then surgeries were followed by supra tip
depression and columellar retraction
To minimize : killians technique was followed.
Deviations in dorsal and caudal areas could not be
corrected
55. Significant change brought about by Metzenbaum
1929
Avoided producing a large defect in cartilagenous
septum by mobilizing and repositioning spetum in
central position
Applicable to caudal dislocation of septum
Compared the principle to a swinging door
Incision given at the level of the deviation
Free inferior border
Posterior free border created by separating the septal
cartilage from the vomer
56.
57. No anterior free border,
septum tethered to
displaced upper cartilage
resulting in recurrence
ofdeviation
58. Peer 1937 completely
excised deviated
caudal segment of
cartilage
Reinserted as free
graft
59. Galloway 1946
Removed the entire septal
cartilage and replaced it with
single autograft cut from the
excised cartilage
Graft was held in place with
mattress sutures nd later
suture removed
60. Problems with this method : unequal scar
contraction : recurrence
Absorption of autograft : saddling of supratip
Alternative solution : mobilization and
repositioning of septal cartilage : Cottle and
then advocated by Rubin
61. INDICATIONS
DNS causing symptoms of nasal obstruction and
recurrent headache.
DNS causing obstruction of paranasal sinuses and
middle ear.
Recurrent epistaxis from septal spur
As a part of septorhinoplasty
As a preliminary step in
Hypophsectomy (Trans septal trans sphenoidal
approach)
Vidian neurectomy (Trans septal apprach)
62. SMR
Infiltration: subperichondrial infiltration with 2%
xylocaine with adrenaline
Incision: killian’s incision- curvilinear incision 2-3mm
behind the anterior end of septal cartilage
Elevation of flaps: the mucoperichondrial and
mucoperiosteal flap is elevated
Incision of the cartilage- cartilage is incised just posterior
to the first incision
Elevation of opposite mucoperichondrial and
mucoperiosteal flap
63. Removal of cartilage and
bone - cartilage can be
removed with Ballinger
swivel knife or luc’s
forceps. Bony spur is
removed using gouge
and hammer
Preserve a strip of 1cm
wide cartilage along the
dorsal and caudal borders
(struts)
65. Septoplasty
Incisions / approaches to
septum
Killians : vertical incision in
septal mucoperichondrium
1.5 cm cranially from the
caudal septal border
Mucoperichondrium is
relatively easily elevated
from this part of the septum
and incision gives good
access to all parts of septum
except for the caudal most
cartilagenous portion
66. Total transfixion incision
Verticular vestibular skin incision caudally
from the caudal septal margin through the
membranous septum
Good exposure of nasal valve area and dorsum
Attachments of medial crura to the caudal
septum is sacrificed
67.
68. Rethi incision
Horizontal midcolumellar incision
Used in rhinoplasty
Elevation of skin from the nasal tip and
dorssum, medial crura of alar cartilages
divided, membranous septum divided and then
caudal border is exposed.
May also be used in septoplasty
69. Hemitransfixation
incision
Also known as freers
Vertical vestibular skin
incision at the level of
caudal septal cartilage,
mucocutaneous junction
Good access to entire
septum
70. Steps :
Infiltration
Incision: Freer’s incision– a unilateral hemitransfixation
incision at the caudal border of the septum
Advantages of this incision : incision is in relatively
avascular zone
Decreased risk of mucosal tears
Easy access to whole septum including he caudal septal
bborder
To combine with rhinoplasty it can be easily extended
to the opposite side and produce a transfixion incision
71. Exposure : usually best to expose the cartilagenous and
bony septum by elevating the mucosal flap on concave
side
Difficulty in flap elevation occurs mainly at the junction
of septal cartilage above, with the anterior nasal spine
and vomer below
Perichondrium encloses the septal cartilage in a
complete envelope which does not fuse with the
periosteum
Periosteum forms another envelope over adjacent bony
septum
72. Anterior tunnel created between the cartilage and
perichondrium from the freers incision
The periosteum over the anterior nasal spine incised
and elevated backwards on both sides over
premaxillary crest then vomer keeping below the
chondrovomerine suture. This forms the inferior tunnel
Unite the anterior and the inferior tunnels using a knife
: maxilla premaxilla approach
Inferior part of the septum separated from its osseous
base, anterior nasal spine, premaxillary and maxillary
crest
Incsion made between posterior part of septal cartilage
and bony septum : posterior chondrotomy
73. Straightening
Require removal of a stirp of cartilage, 3-4mm wide
from the lower border, and placed in saline during the
procedure for later use
Straighten the vomerine crest to accommodate the
septal cartilage
Anterior spine is deviated, can be fractured and
repositioned.
Angulated spurs at junction between ethmoid and
vomer, vertical incision is made just behind the cottles
line
74. Mucosal flap is elevated and deviated portion of bone
and cartilage removed.
While making the vertical incision careful not to make
it too anteriorly
Reconstruction of septum
Once the cartilage has been freed attempt made to
reposition it back in midline.
Require removal of a stirp of cartilage, 3-4mm wide
from the lower border, and placed in saline during the
procedure for later use
Pts own cartilage or ear or rib cartilage as substitutes
76. SMR
1. Radical surgery
2. Not done in children
3. Killian’s incision
4. Flaps elevated on both
sides
5. Most of cartilage
removed
6. Caudal dislocation not
corrected
7. Perforation chance
higher
8. Post operative
saddling may be
present
9. Revision surgery
Septoplasty
1. Conservative surgery
2. Can be done in
children
3. Freer’s incision
4. Flap elevated on
concave side only
5. Most of cartilage
preserved
6. Caudal dislocation
corrected
7. Perforation rare
8. Post operative
deformity absent
9. Revision surgery easier
77. SEPTAL PERFORATION
Majority involves septal cartilage
Most common cause : trauma with or without
secondary infection
Iatrogenic : septoplasty, mainly during smr ( killians
incision )
Tight nasal packing
b/l cauterizations for nose bleed
Inadequately treated septal hematoma/ abscess
Foreign bodies
intubation
79. Symptoms
Mainly asymptomatic
Size and site of perforation
Anterior and large perforations symptomatic
Drying, crusting
Recurrent epistaxis
Nasal obstruction
Whisting sounds
Saddling of nose
80. Management
Nonsurgical and surgical
No specific treatment for asymptomatic perforations
Reducing the dryness, crusting
Nasal douching, petroleum based ointments
Cure the causative causes
81. Obturators
Cover the inflamed mucosal
margin
Usually silastic
Prevent drying and encourage
epithelialization over the
cartilage, bony septum.
Major disadvantage :cleaned
or replaced regularly, can
increase blockage
granuloma formation
82. SURGICAL
Vertical height of perforation more critical than the ap
dia
Approximation of mucoperichondrial edges from the
floor of nose to the dorsum of septum causes greatest
tension
Extremely difficult to close perforations larger than
2cm in dia
83. Free grafts : simple or composite grafts
allograft
Pedicled flaps : local nasal mucosal
buccal mucosal
composite septal cartilage
composite skin / cartilage
Rotation or advancement of mucoperichondrial or
mucoperiosteal flaps
b/l mucosal flaps with main blood supply from
sphenopalatine vessels form the basis of most
techniques
84. Grafts used temporalis fascia, mastoid periosteum,
septal/ auricular cartilage
Small defects can be closed with bipedicled flaps
Larger perforations require larger flaps which are
pedicled posteriorly based on sphenopalatine vessels
Amount of mucosa available for closure is inversely
proportional to the dia of perforation
Endonasl : broad based elevations via hemitransfixion
incisions and bipedicled flaps preserving anterior and
posterior blood supplies
With horizontal relieving incisions and interposition
grafts gives good results for perforations < 0.5cm
85. External rhinoplasty approach via trans columella
approach or a columella – philtrum incision
Sectioning of columella below the medial crural
footplates and connecting to transfixion and
intercartilagenous incisions provides excellent
exposure of septum and lower dorsum.
Alar crease incisions limited access not to be
combined with transcolummellar approach
86. MIDFACE DEGLOVING APPROACH
Extensive dissection of face for >2cm perforations
Used with rotation transposition mucosal flaps
87. Septal hematoma
It is collection of blood under the perichondrium or
periosteum of nasal septum
When septum is subjected to a sharp buckling stress,
submucosal blood vesels are torn if mucosa remains
intact this will result in hematoma
If severe injury , septal fracture, blood will flow to opp
side and cause b/l hematoma
Blood accumulates in subperichondrial layer :
interferes with vitality of cartilage
Cartilage can remain viable for 3 days, absorption
follows
88.
89. Symptom : nasal obstruction
Examination will reveal smooth rounded b/l septal
swelling which often extends upto the lateral nasal
wall
Treatment : early surgical drainage
Long hemitransfixation incision made, blood
aspirated.
If there is a defect in the cartilage, supported with a
homograft
Complications : external deformity
Septal abscess
90. Septal abscess
Etiology
Secondary infection of septal haematoma
Furuncle of the nasal vestibule
Clinical features
Severe bilateral nasal obstruction with pain and
tenderness over bridge of nose
Fever with chills
Frontal headache
Skin over the nose may be red and swollen
Smooth bilateral swelling of the nasal septum
Congested septal mucosa
91. Treatment
Abscess should be drained as early as possible
Pus and necrosed cartilage removed by suction
Incision may required to be re-opened daily for 2-3
days to drain any pus or remove any necrosed piece of
cartilage
Systemic antibiotics to be started as soon as possible
and continued for two weeks
92. Complications
Depression of the cartilagenous dorsum
Septal perforation
Meningitis and cavernous sinus thrombosis
(rare)
94. WEGNERS GRANULOMATOSIS
Autoimmune disorder, necrotizing granulomatous
lesion of respiratory tract, vasculitis of small and
medium arteries and glomerulonephritis
M:F 1:1, 20 – 40yrs
Constitutional symptoms of fever, night sweats, wt
loss, malaise, weakness
Nose : nose and pns r most frequently affected in head
and neck
Foul smelling rhinorrhea, recurrent epistaxis
Nasal obstruction, hyposmia or anosmia
Nasal crusting, eythematous tissue, granulation tissue
95. Perforation in septum
Chronic sinusitis
Diagnosis : ANCA +
Biopsy : pns tissue offers most favourable results
Treatment : corticosteroids, immunosuppresive
therapy, cytotoxic drugs : cyclophosphamide,
chlorambucil or azathioprine may b used
96. SYPHILIS
Sexually transmitted disease, cause by spirochete,
treponema pallidum
Primary syphilis presence of a chancre at the site of
treponemal inoculation
Secondary syphilis represents hematogenous
dissemination followed by a latent or asymptomatic
phase
This might progress into tertiary syphilis
Congenital syphilis : early and late stages
97. Early congenital syphilis
Purulent nasal discharge
Fissuring and excoriation of nasal vestibule
Late congenital syphilis
Gummatous lesion destroy the nasal structure
Corneal opacity
Deafness
Hutchinson’s teeth
98. Primary sysphilis of nose is rare, but occurs at the
mucocutaneous junction
Secondary ssyphilis manifests as rhinitis with scant
thick discharge and irritation of anterior nares
Tertiary : gummata of nose
Septum is commonly involved and eventually
destroyed
Diagnosis
VDRL, FTA – ABS, TPHA
TREATMENT : Benzathine penicillin 2.4 million units
i.m weekly x 3week
99. TUBERCULOSIS
Primary nasal infection is rare
Secondary to pulmonary T.B.
Nodular infiltration of anterior part
Ulceration and perforation of the cartilaginous part of
the septum
Diagnosis by Biopsy
Anti tubercular drug is the t/t
100. LUPUS VULGARIS
Low grade tubercular infection
Commonly involve the nasal vestibule and skin
of the face
Characteristic feature is “apple-jelly nodules”
brown, gelatinous nodules
Perforation of the cartilaginous septum
Biopsy is diagnostic
Anti-Tubercular t/t.
101. LEPROSY
Caused by M.leprae
Mostly by Lepromatous leprosy
Starts from the nasal vestibule and involve the
septum and inf turbinate
Nodular lesion Ulcers Perforation
Atrophic rhinitis Retraction of collumela
Diagnosis by Biopsy
Anti-leprotic therapy
102. SARCOIDOSIS
Unknown etiology, mutiorgan disorder
Young and middle aged
Presents with b/l hilar lymphadenopathy, pulmonary
infiltration, ocular and skin lesions
Formation of epitheloid granuloma, noncaseating
Nose – obstruction, postnasal drip, headache, recurrent
sinus infections, purulent nasal discharge
Dry friable lesions involving septum and inferior
turbinates with thick discharge and crusting
Granulomatous inflammation result in subcutaneous
yellowish nodules
Polypoid tissue and spetal perforations can occur
103. Diagnosis
Clinical and radigraphic findings
Histological finding of non caseating granuloma
Exclusion of other diseases
Biopsy : transbronchial lung biopsy, bronchoalveolar
lavage : cd 4/ cd 8 ratio increased
Treatment : systemic corticosteroids
104. Mucormycosis
Found in uncontrolled diabetics and pt with
immunosuppressive therapy
Rapidly fatal condition
Affinity of the fungus to artery ,causes thrombosis
Black necrotic mass eroding the septum and hard palate
T/t – Surgical debridement, amphotericin B ,control of
underlying cause.
105. Believe to be a type of Lymphoma, t cell / nk
cell lymphoma
Stewart granuloma
Destructive disease in the nose and mid facial
region
Common in males, 5-6th decade
Differentiated from Wegener's granulomatosis
by absence of pulmonary and renal
involvement.
106. Purulent nasal discharge, persistent rhinorrhea
with nasal obstruction,
Nasal crusting, necrosis
Progressive destruction of nasal framework
Gross mutilation of face
Metastasis
Diagnosis : biopsy
Necrotic area with atypical cellular infiltrate
Immunohistochemistry using monoclonal
antibodies against t cell differentiation antigen
can b used for diagnosis
Tratment : radiotherapy