Created By Dushmanta Nath

1. IITT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DBMS
PRACTICAL FILE
SUBMITTED TO SUBMITTED BY
Ms. MEENAKSHI SHARMA DUSHMANTA NATH
(CSE-DEPARTMENT) IT-5TH SEM
81301113016
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2. INDEX
SR EXPERIMENT DATE SIGNATURE
NO.
01 INTRODUCTION TO ORACLE
02 DATA TYPES OF SQL
03 SQL COMMANDS
04 ENHANCING PERFORMANCE
05 GRANTING AND REVOKING
PERMISSIONS
06 JOINS
07 CONSTRAINTS
08 FUNCTIONS
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3. INTRODUCTION TO ORACLE
CLIENT SERVER COMPUTING ARCHITECTURE
It consists of two or more computers designated as client machine running
an application program which communicates with remote computer designated as server machine which
serves request from client machine. In basic model of client server computing, RDBMS resides on
server machine. The application program which resides on client machine interfaces with client software
called middleware that are responsible for communicating request & results between their application
programs and RDBMS.
CLIENTS
CLIENTS LAN / WAN CLIENTS
RDBMS
SERVER
DATA
PRINTERS
STORAGE
CLIENT
The Client is the front END application of a database which interacts
with the server. The Client has more responsibility for accessing the data, it concentrates on the requests.
The processing and presentation is managed by the server.
SERVER
The Server executes the Oracle software and these with the function required for simultaneous
and shared data excess. The server receives and processes the SQl and PL/SQL declaration and that
originates in the client application.
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4. There are two types of Client Server Model are
 Two tier Client Server Model
 Three tier client Server Model
 Two tier Client Server Model: It improves the scalability by allowing upto 100’s of user and is very
flexible for data sharing. Client requests services whereas the server it provides its services. There is
one limitation of this tier i.e. the design of this architecture scales up. There are three components of
client of this tier:
 User System interface
 Processing Management
 Database Management
 Three Tier Client Server Model: When the less software is on the client, there is less worry about
security. Since the importance software is on a server and in a
more controlled environment. The support and installation cost of maintaining the software on a
single server is much less than trying to maintain the same software on 100’s of PC’s.
ADVANTAGES OF CLIENT SERVER MODEL
 It allows the user to work in extensible form.
 It can work on any type of operating system eg. UNIX, LINUX, Win 98.
 It provides the facility to establish the link between remote databases.
 It provides the facility of fast accessing of information and processing of data.
 Better application performance and network usage i.e. it reduces the network time.
 It is multiplatform and centralized.
 Distributed computing as the servers act as a focal point for data management.
 Provides flexibility and full utilization of all resources.
 The same database is shared by different clients.
DISADVANTAGES OF CLIENT SERVER MODEL
 Bottleneck: If a significant portion of application layer is moved to a server, the server may
become a bottle neck in the processing and distribution of data to the client
 Server limited resources will be in over higher demanding by the increasing no. of resource
consumers.
 Security features: It has to take care of the security of the database from unauthorized access.
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5. ORACLE
Oracle is one of the powerful RDBMS product that provide efficient solutions for database
applications. Oracle is the product of Oracle Corporation which was founded by LAWRENCE
ELLISION in 1977. The first commercial product of oracle was delivered in 1970. The first version of
oracle 2.0 was written in assembly language. Nowadays commonly used versions of oracle are
ORACLE 8, 8i & 9i Oracle 8 and onwards provide tremendous increase in performance, features and
functionality.
FEATURES OF ORACLE
 Client/Server Architecture
 Large database and Space Management
 Concurrent Processing
 High transaction processing performance
 High Availability
 Many concurrent database users
 Controlled availability
 Openness industry standards
 Manageable security
 Database enforced integrity
 Distributed systems
 Portability
 Compatibility
ORACLE SERVER TOOL
Oracle is a company that produces most widely used server based multi-user RDBMS. Oracle
server is a program installed on server hard-disk drive. This program must be loaded in RAM to that it
can process the user requests. Oracle server takes care of following functions. Oracle server tools are
also called as back end. Functions of server tool:
 Updates the data
 Retrieves the data sharing
 Manages the data sharing
 Accepts the query statements PL/SQL and SQL
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6.  Enforce the transaction consistency
ORACLE CLIENT TOOL
Once Oracle engine is loaded into sever memory user
would have to log in to engine in order to work done. Client tools are more useful in commercial
application development. It provides facilities to work on database objects. These are more commonly
used in commercial applications. Oracle client tools are also called front end.
DDL – DATA DEFINATION LANGUAGE
The SQL sentences that are used to create these objects are called
DDL’s or Data Definition Language. The sql provides various commands for defining relation schemas,
deleting relations, creating indexes and modify relation schemas. DDL is part of sql which helps a user
in defining the data structures into the database. Following are the various DDL commands are
 Alter table & Create table & drop table
 Create index & drop index
 Create view & drop view
DML – DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE
The SQL sentences used to manipulate data within these objects are called DML’s or
Data Manipulation Language. It is language that enables users to
access or manipulate data as organized by appropriate data model. By data manipulation we have
 Retrieval of information stored in database.
 Insertion of new information into database.
 Deletion of information from database.
 Modification of data stored in database.
Two types of DML are
 Procedural DML
 Non-procedural DML
Following are DML commands are
 Select
 Update
 Delete
 Insert
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7. DCL – DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE
The SQL sentences, which are used to control the behavior of
these objects, are called DCL’s or Data Control Language. It is language used to control data and access
to the database. Following are some DCL commands are
 Commit
 Rollback
 Save point
 Set transaction
DATA TYPES OF SQL
 CHAR : This data type is used to store character strings values of fixed length. The size in
brackets determines the number of characters the cell can hold. The maximum number of
characters (i.e. the size) this data type can hold is 255 characters. Syntax is CHAR(SIZE)
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8. Example is CHAR (20)
 VARCHAR : This data type is used to store variable length alphanumeric data. The maximum this
data type can hold is 4000 characters. One difference between this data type and the CHAR data
type is ORACLE compares VARCHAR values using non-padded comparison semantics i.e. the
inserted values will not be padded with spaces. Syntax is VARCHAR(SIZE)
Example is VARCHAR (20) OR VARCHAR2 (20)
 NUMBER : The NUMBER data type is used to store numbers (fixed or floating point). Numbers
of virtually any magnitude maybe stored up to 38 digits of precision. Numbers as large as 9.99 *
10 to the power of 124, i.e. followed by 125 zeros can be stored. The precision, (P), determines the
maximum length of the data, whereas the scale, (S), determines the number of places to the right of
the decimal. If scale is omitted then the default is zero. If precision is omitted values are stored
with their original precision up to the maximum of 38 digits.
Syntax is NUMBER (P, S) Example is NUMBER (10, 2)
 LONG : This data type is used to store variable length character strings containing up to
2GB. LONG data can be used to store arrays of binary data in ASCII format. LONG values
cannot be indexed, and the normal character functions such as SUBSTR cannot be applied to
LONG values.
Syntax is LONG (SIZE) Example is LONG (20)
 DATE : This data type is used to represent data and time. The standard format id DD-MM-YY as
in 13-JUL-85. To enter dates other than the standard format, use the appropriate functions. Date
Time stores date in the 24-hour format. By default, the time in a date field is 12:00:00 am, if no
time portion is specified. The default date for a date field is the first day of the current month.
Syntax is DATE
 LONG RAW : LONG RAW data types are used to store binary data, such as
Digitized picture or image. Data loaded into columns of these data types are
stored without any further conversion. LONG RAW data type can contain up to 2GB. Values stored in
columns having LONG RAW data type cannot be indexed. Syntax is LONGRAW (SIZE)
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9.  RAW : It is used to hold strings of byte oriented data. Data type can have a maximum length of 255
bytes. Syntax is RAW(SIZE)
TRANSACTION STATEMENTS
 COMMIT: A COMMIT ends the current transaction and makes permanent any changes made
during the transaction. All transactional locks acquired on tables are released. Syntax is
COMMIT [work] [comment text];
Where
Work is optional and comment text is used to specify comment
 ROLLBACK : A ROLLBACK does exactly the opposite of COMMIT. It ends the transaction but
undoes any changes made during the transaction. All transactional locks acquired on tables are
released. Syntax is
ROLLBACK [WORK] [TO [SAVEPOINT] save point]
Where
WORK is optional and is provided for ANSI compatibility. SAVEPOINT is optional and is used
to rollback a partial transaction, as far as the specified save point. SAVEPOINT is a save point
created during the current transaction.
 SAVEPOINT : SAVEPOINT marks and saves the current point in the processing of a transaction.
When a SAVEPOINT is used with a ROLLBACK statement, parts of a transaction can be undone.
An active save point is one that is specified since the last COMMIT or ROLLBACK. Syntax is
SAVEPOINT savepointname;
Where
Save point is an identifier and it is not to declared in declare section.
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10. SQL COMMANDS
 CREATE TABLE: A table is basic unit of storage. It is composed of rows and columns. To
create a table we will name the table and the columns of the table. We follow the rules to name
tables and columns:-
 It must begin with a letter and can be up to 30 characters long.
 It must not be duplicate and not any reserved word.
Syntax to create a table is
CREATE TABLE tablename (column_name1 datatype (size), column_name2 datatype
(size) …);
Example is
CREATE TABLE student (rollno number (4), name varchar2 (15));
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11.  SELECT : The select command of sql lets you make queries on the database. A query is a
command that is given certain specified information from the database tables. It can be used to
retrieve a subset of rows or columns from one or more tables.
Syntax to create a table is
SELECT <column_name1>,<column_name2> FROM <tablename>;
Example is
SELECT empno, ename, sal from emp;
 CREATE TABLE FROM ANOTHER TABLE : We can create a table by applying as
subquery clause from another clause. It will create the table as well as insert the rows returned
from subquery. Syntax to create table from another table is
CREATE TABLE tablename(<column1>,<column2>,……)
AS SELECT <column1>,<column2> FROM <tablename>;
Example is
CREATE TABLE stud(empno,ename,salary)
AS SELECT empno,ename,sal FROM emp;
 ALTER TABLE : After creating a table one may have need to change the table either by add
new columns or by modify existing columns. One can do so by using alter table command.
Syntax to add a column is
ALTER TABLE tablename ADD(col1 datatype,col2 datatype);
Syntax to modify a column is
ALTER TABLE tablename MODIFY(col1 datatype,col2 datatype);
 DROP TABLE : To remove the definition of oracle table, the drop table statement is used.
Syntax to drop table is
DROP TABLE tablename
 RENAME : One can change the name of a table by rename command Syntax to rename table is
RENAME oldname TO newname
 DELETE : One can delete data fron table by using delete from statement. The delete statement
removes rows from table but it doesn’t release storage space. Syntax of delete rows from table is
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12. DELETE FROM tablename WHERE <condition>;
 DESCRIBE : To find information about columns like column name, their data types and other
attributes of a table we can use DESCRIBE command. Syntax to describe table is
DESCRIBE tablename;
 INSERT : To add new rows in an existing oracle table the insert command is used. Syntax to
add new fields is
INSERT INTO tablename(col1,col2,col3,..)
VALUES(value1,value2,value3);
Example is
INSERT INTO employee(emp_id,ename,desg,basic_pay)
VALUES(100001,’MOHIT’,’MANAGER’,55000);
 UPDATE : The update command enables user to change the values of existing rows. Syntax to
update value of table is
UPDATE tablename SET col1=value1,col2=value2;
Example is
UPDATE emp_info SET salary =salary +100;
 DISTINCT CLAUSE : The distinct keyword duplicates all rows from results of a select
statement. Syntax to remove distinct rows is
SELECT DISTINCT <col1>,<cols2> FROM tablename;
Example is
SELECT DISTINCT job FROM emp;
 WHERE CLAUSE : The where clause specifies the criteria for selection of rows to be returned.
Syntax is
SELECT <col1>,<col2> FROM tablename WHERE <cond>;
Example is
SELECT ename,sal FROM emp WHERE sal > 2000;
 ORDER BY CLAUSE : You can sort the results of query ina specific order using order by
clause. It allows sorting of query results by one or more columns. It can be done either in
ascending or descending. Syntax to sort result of query is
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13. SELECT * FROM tablename ORDER BY col1,col2,col3;
Example is
SELECT * FROM emp ORDER BY ename desc;
 GROUP BY CLAUSE : The group clause is sued in select statement to divide the table into
groups. Grouping can be done by column name or wih aggregate functions in which case the
aggregate producing a value for each group.
Syntax is
SELECT col1,col2 FROM tablename GROUP BY <col>;
Example is
SELECT deptt,avg(salary) FROM emp_infoGROUP BY deptt;
 HAVING CLAUSE : The having clause filters the group values created by group by clause.
This clause can precede the group by clause but it is more logical if we place group by first.
Syntax is
SELECT col1,col2 FROM tablename GROUP BY <col>
HAVING <condition>;
Example is
SELECT deptt,max(salary) FROM emp_info GROUP BY deptt
HAVING max(salary) > 12000;
 IN: In operator is used to check a value as search from a domain of multiple values to perform a
query. Not In acts as reverse of In.
Syntax is
SELECT <col1>,<col2> FROM tablename
WHERE <col> IN (value1,value2,value3);
Example is
SELECT ename,address,city,state FROM employee
WHERE deptt IN (‘comp’,’electronics’,’english’);
 ALL : It retains duplicate output rows. All is essentially a clarifier rather than a functional
argument.
Syntax is
SELECT ALL <column1>,<column2> FROM <tablename>;
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14. Example is
SELECT ALL city FROM suppliers;
SET OPERATORS
Set keywords are used to combine information of similar type
from one or more than one table. Set operations and the operators are based on set theory. It consumes
two or more queries into one result. The types of set operators are:-
 UNION : The union clause merges the outputs of multiple queries into a single set of rows and
columns. It combines rows returned by two select statements by eliminating duplicate rows.
Syntax is
SELECT <statement> UNION SELECT <statements>;
Example is
SELECT designation FROM emp_info WHERE deptt=’comp’
UNION
SELECT designation FROM emp_info WHERE deptt=’eco’;
 INTERSECT : The intersect operator combines two select statements and return only those rows
that are returned by both queries. Syntax is
SELECT <statement> INTERSECT SELECT <statements>;
Example is
SELECT designation FROM emp_info WHERE deptt=’comp’
INTERSECT
SELECT designation FROM emp_info WHERE deptt=’eco’;
 MINUS : It combines the result of two queries and returns only those values that are selected by
first query but not in second query. Syntax is
SELECT <statement> MINUS SELECT <statements>;
Example is
SELECT desgination FROM emp_info WHERE deptt=’comp’
MINUS
SELECT desgination FROM emp_info WHERE deptt=’eco’;
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15. ENHANCING PERFORMANCE
Views :
A view is very commonly used database object that is derived at runtime. A view contains data
of its own. Its contents are derived from another table. The command for creating view is CREATE
VIEW command. Editing in the tables are automatically reflected in the views. It is virtual table & does
not have any data of its own. Syntax to create a view is
CREATE [OR REPLACE] VIEW view name AS sub query
[WITH CHECK OPTION] [WITH READ ONLY];
Example is CREATE VIEW mohit AS SELECT empno, ename, sal, comm FROM emp;
Types of views are as follows:
 Join View:- It is defined as view that has more than one table specified in from clause and does
not contain following clauses i.e. distinct, aggregation, group by. This type of view allows
update, insert and delete command to change data in table. Syntax is
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW mohit AS SELECT ename, empno, sal FROM
emp, dept WHERE emp.deptno = dept.deptno;
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16. The views to be updateable must not include the following are
 Set operators , aggregate functions
 Distinct operator , rownum pseudo columns
 Group by clause , having clause
 Inline View: - Oracle also offers an inline view that is very handy and inline view is part of SQL
statements. It allows you in body of SQL statement to define SQL for view that SQL statement
will use to resolve its query.
 Materialized View: - Snapshot also called materialized view. It is defined as copy of part of table
or entire table. It reflects the current status of table that is being copied. The original status table
is also called master table. Two types are Read only and update. Read-only does not allow
changes to be made in view. It simply publishes and subscribes the replications. It allows
changes in local copy which periodically updates master table.
Sequences :
Oracle provides an object called a Sequence that can generate
numeric values. The value generated can have a maximum of 38 digits. A sequence can be defined to
 generate numbers in ascending or descending order.
 provide intervals between numbers.
 Caching of sequence numbers in memory.
A sequence is a database object used to generate unique integers for use as primary keys. Syntax is
CREATE SEQUENCE sequence name
[INCREMENT BY integervalue
START WITH integervalue
MAXVALUE integervalue / NOMAXVALUE
MINVALUE integervalue / NOMINVALUE
CYCLE / NOCYCLE
CACHE integervalue / NOCACHE
ORDER / NOORDER]
Example is
CREATE SEQUENCE mohit
INCREMENT BY 1
START WITH 1
MINVALUE 1
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17. MAXVALUE 9999
CYCLE;
Indexes :
Index is a way to store and search records in the table. These are used to improve the speed with
which records can be located and retrieved from the table. Oracle retrieves rows in table in one of two
ways are:
 By ROWID
 By full table scan
The creation and dropping of index doesn’t affect the storage of data in the underlying tables.
Indexes are primarily used for 2 reasons are:
 To ensure the uniqueness of the indexed column’s values.
 To enhance performance.
Syntax to create an index is
CREATE INDEX <index name> ON <tablename>(column name);
Syntax to drop an index is
DROP INDEX <index name>;
The types of indexes are:-
 UNIQUE : It doesn’t allow duplicate values for indexed columns.
Example is
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX mohit ON EMP (ename);
 DUPLICATE : It allows duplicate values for indexed columns.
Example is
CREATE DUPLICATE INDEX mohit ON EMP (ename);
 COMPOSITE : multi column indexes.
Example is
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX mohit ON EMP (ename, sal);
 FUNCTIONAL : perform some functions on fields and then indexes it. Example is
CREATE INDEX mohit ON EMP (sal+100);
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18. GRANTING AND REVOKING PERMISSIONS
 GRANT : The Grant statement provides various types of access to database
objects such as tables, views and sequences. A privilege is consent to execute an action or to
access another user object. These consents can be given by grant statement. Syntax is
GRANT {object privileges} ON object name
TO username [WITH GRANT OPTION];
The WITH GRANT OPTION allows the grantee to in turn grant object privileges to other users.
Object privileges
Each object privileges that is granted authorizes the grantee to
Perform some operation on the object. The user can grant all the privileges or grant only specific object
privileges.
ALTER allows the grantee to change the table definition with the.
ALTER TABLE command.
DELETE allows the grantee to remove the records from the table with the DELETE command.
INDEX allows the grantee to create an index on the table with the
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19. CREATE INDEX command.
INSERT allows the grantee to add records to the table with the INSERT
Command.
SELECT allows the grantee to query the table with the SELECT
Command.
UPDATE allows the grantee to modify the records in the tables with the
UPDATE command.
Example to grant select & insert privileges on table item to user named as mohit.
GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON item TO mohit;
Example to grant all privileges on table EMP to user named as chiku.
GRANT ALL ON EMP TO mohit;
 REVOKE : Privileges once given can be denied to a user using the REVOKE command. The
object owner can revoke privileges granted to another user. A user of an object who is not the owner,
but has been granted the GRANT privilege, has the power to REVOKE the privileges from a grantee.
The REVOKE statement is used to deny the grant given on an object.
Syntax is
REVOKE {object privileges}
ON object name
FROM username;
Example to revoke select & insert privileges on table item to user named as mohit.
REVOKE SELECT, INSERT ON item TO mohit;
Example to revoke all privileges on table EMP to user named as chiku.
REVOKE ALL ON EMP TO mohit;
PATTERN MATCHING
SQL includes string matching operator LIKE for comparison on character
string using patterns. The LIKE predicate allows for a comparison of one string with another string
value, which is not identical. This is achieved by using wildcard characters. The patterns are case
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20. sensitive and that is uppercase letters do not match lower case characters. The keyword NOT LIKE is
used to select those rows that do not match the specified pattern of characters.
Two wildcard characters that are available are:
For character data types: The percent sign (%) matches any string
The Underscore (_) matches any single character
Example is
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ename LIKE ‘_B%’;
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ename LIKE ‘MOH__’;
RANGE SEARCHING
BETWEEN operator acts as range searching operator. To get a range of
values from a query, you may use between operators. You must specify the lower and upper limit for
range search. Syntax is
SELECT <col1>,<col2> FROM table name
WHERE <col> BETWEEN lower limit and upper limit;
Example is
SELECT empname, deptt, basic pay FROM employee
WHERE basic pay BETWEEN 5000 and 10000;
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21. JOINS
A JOIN can be recognized in sql select statement if its has more than one table after from
keyword. This join condition is based on primary keys and foreign keys. There must be n-1 join
conditions for n joins to tables. If join condition is omitted then the result is Cartesian product.
Syntax is
SELECT “list of columns” FROM table1, table2 WHERE “condition”;
Types of joins are
 Equi join : It returns all rows from tables where there is a match. Tables are joined on columns
that have the same datatype & size in table. It is also known as equality join or simple join or
inner join. Syntax is
SELECTfield1,field2 FROM table1,table2 WHERE table1.field=table2.field;
Example is
SELECTename, dname FROM emp, dept WHERE emp.deptno=dept.deptno;
 Cartesion join : When the join condition is omitted the result is Cartesian join of two or more
tables in which all the combinations of rows will be displayed. All the rows are joined to all rows
of the second table. Syntax is
SELECT field1, field2 FROM table1, table2;
Example is SELECTename, dname FROM emp, dept;
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22.  Outer join : While using equi join we see that if there exists certain rows in one table which
don’t have corresponding values in the second table thn those rows will not be selected. We can
forcefully select those rows by outer join. The rows for those columns will have NULL values.
Syntax is
SELECT table1.col, table2.col FROM table1, table2
WHERE table1.col (+) = table2.col;
Example is
SELECT empno, ename, emp.deptno, dname FROM emp, dept
WHERE emp.deptno (+) = dept.deptno;
 Self Join : The self join can be seen as join of two copies of the same table. The table is not
actually copied but sql performs the command as though it were. Example is
SELECT e.ename, m.ename FROM emp e, emp m
WHERE e.mgr=e.empno;
SUBQUERIES
A sub query is a form of an SQL statement that appears inside another SQL
statement. It is also termed as nested query. The statement containing a sub query is called a parent
statement. The parent statement uses the rows returned by the sub query. It can be used by the following
commands:
 To insert records in a target table.
 To create tables and insert records in the table created.
 To update records in a target table.
 To create views.
 To provide values for conditions in WHERE, HAVING, IN etc. used with SELECT,
UPDATE, and DELETE statements.
Types of sub queries are
 Single row : It returns one row from inner nested query. Example is
SELECT deptno FROM emp WHERE ename =’MILLER’;
 Multiple row : Subqueries that return more than one row called multiple row queries. Operators
like IN,ALL,ANY are used. Example is
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23. SELECT ename,sal,deptno FROM emp WHERE sal IN
(SELECT min(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY deptno);
 Multiple column : It returns more than one column .Example is
SELECT ordid , prodid , qty FROM item WHERE (qty,prodid) IN
(SELECT prodid,qty FROM item WHERE ordid = 605 AND ordid <> 605);
CONSTRAINTS
Constraints are the rules that restrict the data values inserted in columns
of a table. It helps in maintaining integrity of table at database level instead of application level. All applicat
can take advantage of these global constraints, rather than building similar logic in individual applicati
Constraints can constrain single column or group of columns in a table. Constraints can be specified as two typ
 Column level constraint
 Table level constraint
Column level constraint : Column constraints are specified as part of column
definition to constrain single column.
Table level constraint : Table constraints is specified at end of create table
statement to constraint more than one column.
Following are the constraints used in tables are
 NULL/NOT NULL : Specifies if the column must contain value or might not contain any. By
default all columns in a table allows nulls, ie. Absence of a value in a column. NOT NULL specifies
that all rows in the table to have value for specified column. All NOT NULL columns are
mandatory fields. Syntax is
COLUMN_NAME DATA_TYPE(SIZE) NOT NULL
Example is
CREATE TABLE employee(empname varchar2(25) NOT NULL) ;
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24.  UNIQUE : Specifies that all values in a column must be unique. Values in field cannot be
duplicated. More than one Null value can be inserted in the column. Unique constraint can be
placed on multiple columns. Syntax is
COLUMN_NAME DATA_TYPE(SIZE) UNIQUE -- at column level
UNIQUE COLUMN_NAME DATA_TYPE(SIZE) -- at table level
Example is
CREATE TABLE dept(deptt varchar2(25) UNIQUE);
CREATE TABLE dept(deptt varchar2(25),UNIQUE(dept));
 PRIMARY KEY : Primary key refers to one or more column values in a table that can uniquely
identify each row in a table. A primary key column cannot contain nulls and is unique by default.
Syntax is
COLUMN DATA_TYPE(SIZE) PRIMARY KEY -- at column level
PRIMARY KEY COLUMN DATA_TYPE(SIZE) -- at table level
Example is
CREATE TABLE dept(deptt varchar2(25) PRIMARY KEY);
CREATE TABLE dept(deptt varchar2(25),PRIMARY KEY(dept));
 FOREIGN KEY : A foreign key is a one or more column with values based on the primary key
values from another table. A foreign key constraint specifies that the values stored in foreign
column correspond to values of the primary key in the other table. Foreign key is also known as
referential integrity constraint. The table containing foreign key is known as Dependent table and
the table that is referenced by foreign key is called Referenced table. Syntax is
COLUMN DATA_TYPE(SIZE) REFERENCES TABLE -- at column level
FOREIGN KEY COLUMN DATA_TYPE(SIZE) REFERENCES TABLE
Example is
CREATE TABLE dept(deptt varchar2(25) REFERENCES emp_info);
CREATE TABLE dept(deptt varchar2(25),PRIMARY KEY(dept) FOREIGN KEY(dept)
REFERENCES emp_info);
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25. FUNCTIONS
Functions make the result of the query easier and are used to manipulate the data values.
Following are the functions are
 String or character functions
 Number functions
 Aggregate functions or group functions
 Date functions
 Conversion functions
Character Manipulation functions
 Ascii : It returns the ASCII decimal equivalent of a character passed as an argument. Example is
select ascii(‘b’)from dual;
 Chr : This function gives the result as a character corresponding to the value in the database set.
Example is select char (97) from dual;
 concat(x1,x2) : This function concates the string x1 with x2. This function is equivalent to the | |
operator. Examples select concat(‘mohit’,’garg’)from dual;
 instr :This function returns the first position of the character x in the string.
Example is select instr(‘mohit’,’o’) from dual;
 length : It returns the length of the string x.
Example is select length (‘mohit’) from dual;
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26.  lpad : It pads the leading spaces to the left side of the column char1 with the char2, so that the total
width becomes equal to the value n. If char2 is absent, it pads the char1 on the left side with blank
spaces to the total width of n.
Example is select lpad(dname,12,’*’) from dept;
 Ltrim : It removes all the blank spaces from the left side of the stringif no char is specified. If we
give a char, then it removes the leading occurrences of that charcter from the string. Example is
select ltrim(dname.’S’) from dept;
 Rpad : This function pads the leading spaces to the right side of the column char1 with the char2,
so that the total width becomes equl to the value n.
Example is select rpad(dname,12,’*’)from dept;
 Rtrim : This function removes all the blank spaces from the right side if no char is specified.
Example is select rtrim(dname,’S’) from dept;
 Replace : Where c1,c2,c3 and c3 are all character string .this function returns c1 with all occurenes
of c2 replaced with c3, the default value of c3 is NULL.
Example is select replace (uptown,’up’,down’)from dual;
 Substr : It returns the substring from z, of length equal to y starting at position x . Example is select
substr(‘mohitgarg’2,5) from dual;
 Initcap : This function returns the string with letter in caps.
Example is select initcap (dname) from dept;
 Lower : This function converts the string into lower case.
Example is select lower (dname)from dept;
 Upper : It converts the string into upper case.
Example is select upper(dname)from dept;
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27.  Translate : This function is used to find a char and replace it with new character. Example is select
dname, translate (dname,’E’,2) from dept;
Group functions
 Count : This function returns the number of rows or non-null values for column x. Syntax is
count([distinct|all]column name)
Example is select count(empno)from emp;
 Sum : This function ireturns the sum of values for the column x. This function is applied on
columns having numeric datatype and it returns the numeric value.
Syntax is sum([distinct|all]column name)
Example is select sum(sal) from emp;
 Avg : Ths function returns the average of values for the column x. It ignores the null values in the
column x. Syntax is avg([distinct|all]column name)
Example is select avg(sal),count(sal) from emp;
 Min : This function returns the minimum of values for the column x for all the rows. Syntax is
min([distinct|all]column name)
Example is select min(sal) from emp;
 Max : This function returns the maximum of values for the column x for all the rows. Syntax is
max([distinct|all]column name)
Example is select min(sal),max(sal) from emp;
Number functions
 Abs : It obtains the absolute value for the number x.
Example is
Select abs(-10) from dual;
 Ceil : Where is a number. This function returns the smallest integer that is greater than or equal to n.
Example is
select ceil (9.8), ceil (-32.85) from dual;
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28.  Cos : It returns trigonometric cosine of the number n.
Example is
select cos(45) from dual;
 Exp : It returns the e raised to the x power.
Example is
select exp (4) from dual;
 Floor : This function returns the largest integer that is less than or equal to n.
Example is
select floor (9.8), floor (-32.85) from dual;
 Mod : It returns the remainder when x is divided by the number y.
Example is
select mod (10.3),mod (10.5)from dual;
 Power : This function returns the value of x raised to the power of y. The argument y should be an
integer.
Example is
select power (2, 3) from dual;
 Round : It rounds off x to the decimal precision of y. If y is negative, rounds to the precision of y
places to the left of the decimal point.
Example is
select round (55.849,1 ), round(55.849) from dual;
 Sign : This function returns the sign of the value x. If x is a negative number it returns -1 otherwise
it returns 1.
Example is
select sign (-2) from dual;
 Sqrt : This function returns the square root of the given number x.
Example is
select sqrt(36) from dual;
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29. Date functions
 Add_months : It adds the months in specified date with the function. Syntax is
ADD_MONTHS(date,m) where date refers to date & m is number value.
Example is
select add_months(sysdate,2) from dual;
 Last_day : It returns the last day of given month which is specified with function.
Syntax is
LAST_DAY(d) where d is date
Example is
select last_day(sysdate) from dual;
 Months_between : It computes & returns the number of months b/w two dates.
Syntax is
MONTHS_BETWEEN(date1,date2)
Example is
select months_between(’13-mar-05’,’01-dec-05’) from dual;
 Next_day : It returns the date of first day of the week specified in a string after the beginning date.
Syntax is NEXT_DAY(date,ch) where ch refers to character value. Example is select next_day(’13-
mar-05’,’sunday’) from dual;
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