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Rome
Rome
Origins of Rome
• Rome was founded in the 8th Century B.C. and was
originally a small city-state ruled by a single king
• Late in the 6th Century B.C., the city’s aristocrats
deposed the king, ended the monarchy, and
instituted a republic
– A republic is a form of government in which delegates
represent the interests of various constituents
• The Roman republic survived for over 500 years and
at one time dominated the Mediterranean basin
Location
•Rome is the capital of Italy .
• The city of Rome is located in the central-western
portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber
River within the Lazio region of Italy.
• Rome's history spans over two and a half thousand
years.
• It was the capital city of the Roman Kingdom,
the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, which
was the dominant power in Western Europe and the
lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea for over seven
hundred years from the 1st Century BC until the 7th
Rise of Rome
• From humble beginnings,
Rome grew into a strong
commercial center, in part
because of its geographic
location
– Rome enjoyed easy access to the
Mediterranean via the Tiber
River, but because it was not on
the coast, it was safe from
invasion or attack by the sea
• By the 6th Century B.C., trade
routes from all parts of Italy
converged in Rome
REPUBLIC &
EMPIRE
Establishment of the Republic
• When the aristocracy deposed the king in 509
and established a republic, they instituted a
republican constitution
– Executive responsibilities were entrusted to two
consuls who wielded civil and military power
– Consuls were elected by an assembly dominated
by hereditary aristocrats and wealthy classes
– Consuls served one year terms
Establishment of the Republic
• The Senate was
composed mostly
of aristocrats with
extensive political
experience
• They advised the
consuls and
ratified all major
decisions
Roman Senate house
Patricians versus Plebeians
• Both the consuls and the
Senate represented the
interests of the patricians–
the hereditary aristocrats
and wealthy classes
• This caused tension
between the patricians and
the common people– the
plebeians
In honor of the Roman
plebeians, freshmen at West
Point are called plebes
Patricians versus Plebeians
• In the early 5th Century, tensions got so bad
that the plebeians threatened to secede from
Rome and establish a rival settlement
• In order to maintain the integrity of the
Roman state, the patricians granted the
plebeians the right to elect officials known as
tribunes to represent their interests
Patricians versus Plebeians
• Originally the plebeians were authorized two
tribunes, but that number eventually rose to
ten
• Tribunes had the power to intervene in all
political matters and to veto measures they
thought were unfair
– Still the patricians continued to dominate Rome
Increased Representation for Plebeians
• During the 4th Century,
plebeians became eligible to
hold almost all state offices and
gained the right to have one of
the consuls come from their
ranks
• By the early 3rd Century,
plebeian-dominated assemblies
won the power to make
decisions binding on all of Rome
• Republican Rome was gradually
broadening the base of political
participation
Dictators
• In times of civil or
military crisis, the
Roman
constitution
allowed for the
appointment of a
dictator who
wielded absolute
power for a term
of six months
Cincinnatus, shown here handing
the rods of power back to the city
fathers, served as dictator of Rome
twice
From Republic to Empire
• Imperial expansion brought wealth to Rome, but the
wealth was unequally distributed which aggravated
class tensions
– Conflicts arose over political and social policies
– During the 1st Century B.C. and the 1st Century A.D., Roman
civil and military leaders will gradually dismantle the
republican constitution and replace it with a centralized
imperial form of government
Bigger Problem
• The problem of land distribution was a
symptom of a bigger problem
– The constitution of the Roman republic had been
designed for a small city-state
– It was not suitable for a large and growing empire
• Roman politicians and generals began
jockeying for power and several raised
personal armies for support
Civil War
• The two most
important generals
were Gaius Marius
and Lucius Cornelius
Sulla
– Marius sided with
social reformers who
favored
redistribution of land
– Sulla sided with the
conservative and
aristocratic classes
SullaMarius
Civil War
• In 87 B.C., Marius marched on Rome, placed
the city under military occupation, and began
hunting down his enemies
• When Marius died the next year, Sulla moved
to replace him
• In 83, Sulla seized Rome and began
slaughtering his enemies
Roman Religion
A Temple of VestaJupiter
Roman Religion
• For centuries the Romans were polytheists.
• Roman religion was a mixture of rituals,
superstitions, and traditions which they
collected over the years from a number of
sources.
• Roman religious ritual was designed to
appease the gods.
Roman Religion
Household Worship
• The father acted as the priest. He led the
family in prayer to household gods like:
• Janus: the god protecting the doorway.
• Vesta: the god of the hearth.
Public Worship
• The Romans adopted Greek Gods and
changed their names. These were often the
gods worshiped in public.
Roman Religion
Mystery Cults
• Secret rituals were only known to those initiated into
the faith.
• From Egypt - the Cult of Isis
• From Persia, the Cult of Mithras - only admitted men
and was very popular among soldiers. This was one
of several resurrection cults. Initiates were baptized
with cow’s blood.
ROMAN
LIFESTYLE
•Men typically wore a toga, and women a stola.
• The woman's stola looked different than a toga, and was usually brightly coloured.
• The cloth and the dress distinguished one class of people from the other class.
•The tunic worn by plebeians, or common people, like
shepherds and slaves, was made from coarse and dark
material.
• whereas the tunic worn by patricians was of linen or white
wool. A knight or magistrate would wear an augusticlavus, a
tunic bearing small purple studs.
•Senators wore tunics with broad red stripes, called tunica
laticlavia.
• Military tunics were shorter than the ones worn by civilians.
Even footwear indicated a person's social status.
Patricians wore red and orange sandals, senators had brown footwear, consuls had white shoes, and
soldiers wore heavy boots.
The Romans also invented socks for those soldiers required to fight on the northern frontiers, sometimes
worn in sandals.
DINING
•Romans had simple food habits.
•Staple food was simple, generally consumed at
• around 11 o'clock, and consisted of bread, salad, cheese,
• fruits, nuts, and cold meat left over from the dinner the night before.
•The Roman poet, Horace mentions another Roman favorite, the olive, in
reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple:
• "As for me, olives, endives, and smooth mallows provide sustenance.“
• The family ate together, sitting on stools around a table. Fingers were used to eat
solid foods and spoons were used for soups.
Wine was considered a staple drink, consumed at all meals and occasions by all
classes and was quite cheap.
Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey were consumed as well.
Drinking on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign for
alcoholism, whose debilitating physical and psychological effects were known to
the Romans.
An accurate accusation of being an alcoholic was an effective way to discredit
political rivals. Prominent Roman alcoholics included Mark Antony.
Roman School
Roman Family
• The Roman family was headed by the
paterfamilias, the dominant male.
• The household also included his wife, sons
with their wives and children, unmarried
daughters, and slaves.
• Unlike the Greeks, the Romans raised their
children at home.
Roman Family
• All upper-class Roman children learned to
read.
• Teachers often were Greek slaves because
prospering in the empire required knowing
both Greek and Latin.
Roman Family
• Roman boys learned reading and writing,
moral principles, family values, law, and
physical training.
• Roman males ended their childhood at 16
with a special ceremony.
• They exchanged their purple-edge togas for
the white toga of manhood.
Roman Family
• Some upperclass girls were educated
privately or in primary schools.
• At the time the boys entered secondary
schools, however, Roman girls were getting
married.
Roman Family
• Like the Greeks, Roman males believed the
weakness of women made it necessary for
them to have male guardians.
• The paterfamilias usually was the guardian.
• He also arranged the marriages of his
daughters.
Roman Family
• The legal minimum age for girls to marry was
12, though 14 was more common.
• The age for boys was 14.
• Divorce was introduced in the third century
B.C. and was easy to obtain.
• Both men and women could sue for divorce.
Roman Family
• By the second century A.D. the paterfamilias no
longer had complete authority in the family.
• For example, he could not sell his children into
slavery or have them put to death.
• Women increasingly were not required to have a
male guardian.
• Upper-class women could own, sell, and inherit
property.
Roman Family
• Outside the home women could attend the
races, the theater, and events in the
amphitheater.
• In the latter two places they had their own
seating section, however, and women could
not participate directly in politics.
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
What is Roman Architecture?
• Roman architecture stands today as a testament to the
ability and grandeur of this once great civilization that, at
one time, covered three continents. The common style of
architecture formed a thread that helped keep the vast
Roman empire connected.
• The Romans adopted the external language of classical
Greek architecture for their own purposes, which were so
different from Greek buildings as to create a new
architectural style. The two styles are often considered one
body of classical architecture. Sometimes that approach is
productive, and sometimes it hinders understanding by
causing us to judge Roman buildings by Greek standards.
Roman and Greek Architecture
The architecture of Classical Greece
and Rome did not come about all at
once, but came in different stages of
design and style. There were five
different styles that the Romans and
Greeks used throughout classical
times, from pre 500 BC to the first
century AD.
The Five Architectual Styles
1~ Doric Style
2~ Ionic Style
3~ Corinthean
4~ Tuscan
5~ Composite Order
Rome
Doric Style
• Columns built in this style usually
had no base and consisted of a
massive shaft with 20 flutes. Doric
architecture predates the 5th century
BC.
Doric Style
• The earliest temples were
built in the Doric style. Doric
temples are simple and
strong.
• In Doric temples, the
columns have no base, but
just sit right on the floor. At
the top of the columns,
there's a capital made of a
sort of small pillow in stone,
and then a square block,
under the architrave (ARR-kuh-
trayv).
These are
examples in
which the
Doric columns
were used.
The Parthenon
in Greece
The Colosseum
in Rome
Ionic Style
• More visibly complex than that of the
Doric style, being of slender
proportion, and their height being
generally about nine times the
column's lower diameter; the order is
always used with a base and the
column shaft usually has 24 flutings.
Ionic Style
• In Ionic temples, the columns have a
small base to stand on, instead of
sitting right on the floor. They are still
fluted, but they have more flutes
than Doric columns. At the top of the
columns, there's a double curve in
stone, under the architrave (ARR-kuh-
trayv). On the architrave, there is a
continuous frieze (FREEZE) where the
triglyphs and metopes would be on a
Doric temple.
This is an
example in which
the Ionic column
was used.
Temple of Athena Nike
in the Acropolis in Athens
Triglyphs and Metopes
Most Greek temples have a pattern
under the pediment known as triglyphs
and metopes. The triglyphs alternate
with the metopes across the front of the
temple. Triglyphs have three parts, and
then in between the triglyphs are the
metopes.
Greek temple
at Agrigento, Sicily
Corinthian Style
• The Corinthian style is fancier and heavier than the
Ionic style.
• This is the most ornate of the classical styles and is
generally much more slender than the Ionic style.
The Romans used the Corinthian order in numerous
monumental works of imperial architecture. They
gave it a special base, made carved additions to the
cornice, and created numerous capital variations,
utilizing florid leafage and sometimes human and
animal figures.
Corinthian Style
In Corinthian temples, the
columns have a fancier base to
stand on. At the top of the
columns, on the capital, there's
a stone carving of acanthus
leaves, under the architrave
(ARR-kuh-trayv). On the
architrave, as in Ionic temples,
there is a continuous frieze
where the triglyphs and
metopes would be on a Doric
temple.
Temple of Castor
in the Roman Forum
Maison Carrée
in Nimes, France
These are
examples in which
the Corinthian
columns were
used.
Tuscan Style
• The Tuscan column was the next form to
be introduced and it was introduced by the
Etruscans. The Tuscan Column is a very
simple, plain column with a base and non-
fluted shaft. No major examples of this
architectural type survive today.
Composite Order
• The Composite form is a combination of Ionic and
Corinthian orders. This form was the most
complex due to the fact that it used the arch.
Due to the advances of the Composite style of
architecture and the skill that the Romans had
with concrete, the Romans were able to develop
such architectural marvels like the arch, the vault
and the dome.
The Pantheon
These are
examples in which
the Composite
Order was used.
Arch of Titus
The Pantheon
• One of the most famous
domed buildings to come
from the ancient Romans
was the Pantheon built in
the last century BC by
Marcus Agrippa and later
refurbished by Hadrian.
This building was originally
built as a temple to all the
Roman gods but was later
converted into a Christian
temple. This building has
the honor of being the
oldest, and largest, free
standing dome in history.
The Pantheon
Inside the
Pantheon
Structure
• Largest un-reinforced concrete dome in the world.
– Dome was made to represent the heavens.
– Built atop concentric circles before the final dome reaches
a height of 43 meters
– Oculus, “Great Eye”
• Thickness of the dome recedes from ~6 meters at the
base to ~1 meter at the top
– Upper part of dome made from volcanic material
Rome
Outer Architecture
• Current ground level too high
• Total of 16 Corinthian columns flank the
entrance and two niches beside door.
• Pediment not as wide and taller than most
others
– Done to hide the top of the dome from the front.
• Extension of portico. Second Pediment?
• Bronze doors
Rome
Interior
• Coffers leading up to the Oculus
– 5 rows of 28 coffers each, housed bronze
ornaments and statues.
• Many niche’s along outer wall
– Each niche may have housed statues to different
gods and emperor’s.
– After the building was given to the church,
Christian alters and burials replaced the statues.
Rome
Rome
Floor
• Simple geometric designs adorn floor
• Many different types of marble and stone
used
– Imperial Porphyry
– Grey Granite
– Docimian Pavonazzetta
– Giallo Numidiana
• Use of rare stone shows extent and power of
empire.
Aqueducts
• The Roman development of the arch also led to the
building of the great aqueducts for which were used to
transport great amounts of water over vast miles of
land. The need for aqueducts occurred in Rome during
the mid republic due to the fact that the Tiber river
had gotten too muddy and polluted from waste
dumping and other deeds. As time went on, numerous
aqueducts were built in Rome and throughout the
empire in general.
• Perhaps the most well preserved aqueduct is Pont du
Gard near Nimes, France
Pont du Gard
near Nimes, France
To transport the water over great
distances, the Roman Aqueduct
worked with the principals of gravity
and they also had special basins
between the source and the
destination that would help purify the
water. Once the water had reached
the destination, it was kept in a
storage tank where it would be
distributed by pipes to different
locations in the city. Some lucky
upper class people had water piped
directly to their residence, the earliest
known form of a sophisticated pipe
system.
Roman Baths
• With the water system that the
Aqueduct allowed, the Roman public
baths got more sophisticated and grew
in size as time went on.
• By the second century AD, public baths
had grown in size and variety. In these
new facilities, the pampered could do
everything from eat, to exercise, and
even read.
Great Advances
• The system that the Romans had for maintaining
their bath houses was an engineering wonder.
– In the cold and hot areas of the bath, the water
temperature was actually regulated by the use of
underground fire furnaces.
– Also, the dirty water in the baths was actually drained
and replaced regularly.
– The bath house also had a hookup to the complex
Roman water system and so always had an ample
source of water, for both bathing in, and for drinking.
The great sanitary conditions of the bath house
were major factors that helped to make the
Roman empire the cleanest society up until the
19th century.
Amphitheater
• The Roman Amphitheater, like most styles of
buildings, was influenced greatly by the Greek
civilization. These structures were generally
circular and used the arch as their style of
building but some were known to be built into a
mountain or hillside. The theaters and
amphitheaters were quite big in size and could
hold upwards of 50 000 spectators.
COLOSSEU
M
The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian
Amphitheatre (Latin:Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro
Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the
city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire.
 It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman
architecture and Roman engineering.
Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[the Colosseum was used for
gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles,
animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas
based on Classical mythology.
The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early
medieval era.
 It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops,
quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and
a Christian shrine.
Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused
by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is
an iconic symbol of ImperialRome.
It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close
connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good
Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the
area around the Colosseum.
The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro
coin.
Rome
MEDEIVAL
Map of medieval Rome depicting the Colosseum
The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the
medieval period.
 By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure
of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular
religious significance on the building as a whole.
The arena was converted into a cemetery.
The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were
converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being
rented out as late as the 12th century.
Interior of the Colosseum. The Stations of
the Cross around the arena and the
extensive vegetation, both removed later
in the 19th century.
The Colosseum in a 1757.
Between 1993 and 2000, parts of the outer wall were cleaned (left) to
repair the Colosseum from automobile exhaust damage
Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the
Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be
accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have
been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop.
EXTERIOR
The exterior of the Colosseum, showing the partially intact outer wall (left) and the
mostly intact inner wall (right)
Original façade of the Colosseum
Entrance LII of the Colosseum.
Cross section of the colosseum
THE ARENA AND THE HYPOGEUM
The Colosseum arena, showing the hypogeum. The wooden
walkway is a modern structure
The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by
163 Roman feet).
It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand
is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called
the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground").
Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still
clearly visible.
It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages
beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests
began.
Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged
animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged
platforms, calledhegmata, provided access for elephants and the like.
It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different
phases of construction can be seen.
From columns…
To aquaducts…
Arches…
Baths…
Amphitheaters and
Monuments…
CIRCUS MAXIMUS
CIRCUS MAXIMUS
The Circus Maximus (Latin for great or large circus, in Italian Circo Massimo) is
an ancient Roman chariot racing stadium and mass entertainment venue
located inRome.
Situated in the valley between the Aventine and Palatine hills, it was the first
and largest Chariot Racing Stadium in ancient Rome.
The site is now a public park and retains little evidence of its former use.
The Circus could hold over 1/4 of the city's population, over 250,000 people,
allowing for this Circus to be a popular viewing place by the Romans.
The Circus measured "621 m (2,037 ft) in length and 118 m (387 ft) in width.
Map of central Rome during the
Roman Empire, with the Circus
Maximus at the lower right corner.
The Circus Maximus viewed from the Palatine Hill.
Chariot racing was the most important event at the Circus.
The track could hold twelve chariots, and the two sides of the track were
separated by a raised median called the "spina".
The spina was set slightly diagonally.
Statues of various gods were set up on the spina, and Augustus erected
an Egyptian obelisk on it as well.
On the spina, there were rotatable metal dolphins that were turned down to
mark laps around the course.
Chariot racing was an extremely dangerous sport, frequently resulting in
spectacular crashes and the death of one or more of the contestants.
One end of the track extended further back than the other, to allow the chariots
to line up to begin the race.
During these chariot races, bribery of the judge in order to fix the start of the
race was very common.
The race went for a total distance of about 6.5 km (4 miles). Prostitution was
popular along the gates of Circus Maximus.
The Circus Maximus retained the honour of being the first and largest
circus in Rome.
Ruins of the Circus Maximus
(1983).
ROMAN BATH • Roman bathing, which consisted of the Roman baths (or
thermae) and also balneum
• Early Romans used baths, but seldom, and only then for heath
and cleanliness
• Existence in 25 BC with the first thermae built by the Emperor
Argippa
• Most Romans bathed in local neighborhood balneum, with an
average of 5 bath houses per block
• Popularity of these balneum led to the creation of the thermae
• Each emperor tried to improve upon the design, grandeur, and
popularity of the ones before him
• In order to create popularity, the fees to bath were practically
nonexistent
• The best and most grand bath complexes were found within
Rome, as it served as the capital of the empire
• The success of the bath complexes owes much to the
technological advances of the Greeks and early Roman
• The improvement of the aqueduct, the architectural usage of
vaulted ceilings, and the hypocaust heating system allowed
these great complexes to be as magnificent as they were
Bath Of
Caracalla_______________________MAIN BUILDING
27 acres complex (11 hectares).
Accommodate up to 2000 people per
time.
Main building at the centre and covered
by a thick wall consists of libraries and
gym and also gardens.
6 feet height for loading purpose.
Main building have upper level for service and
heating and lower level for water drainage.
Heating reservoir by Aque Marcia Aqueduct.
The bath was known because of the rich
interiors of marble seats, mosaic walls and
floors as well as fountain and statue.
Bath Of
Caracalla_______________________
VESTIBULES
FUNCTION LIKE A LOBBY OR AN
ENTRANCE ROOM BETWEEN THE
INTERIOR OF THE BUILDING AND OUTER
SPACE.
INTERIOR
Bath Of
Caracalla_______________________INTERIOR
APODYTERIUM (DRESSING ROOMS )
A FIRST STOP PLACE FOR BATHERS
BEFORE THEY GET TO A STEP BY STEP
BATHS.
EQUIPPED WITH BENCHES AND OFTEN
CUBICLES TO STORE BATHER’S CLOTHES.
COMMONLY ONE SLAVE WILL STAY TO
WATCH THE BATHERS BELONGINGS.
Bath Of
Caracalla_______________________
A FACILITIES SERVE FOR TRAINING IN
BOXING AND PLAY A KIND OF BALL
GAME.
THOSE ACTIVITIES WILL MAKES BATHERS
TO HAVE SOME MODERATE EXERCISE
BEFORE THEY GET TO BATHS.
INTERIOR
PALAESTRAS (EXERCISE YARD)
Bath Of
Caracalla_______________________
CALIDARIUM
INTERIOR
A HOT ROOM WITH A HOT POOL OF
WATER – 35M DIAMETER.
THIS POOLS HELPS TO OPEN THE
BATHERS PORES AND ALSO HELP THEM
TO SWEATS.
A wing of the underground levels under the
caldarium. The large dimensions of the
galleries derived from the necessity to bring in
horse-drawn wagons full of wood.
Bath Of
Caracalla_______________________
TEPIDERIUM
INTERIOR
A WARM ROOM
ALSO A PLACE WHERE THE BATHERS CAN
HAVE A MASSAGE AND BODY HAIR
REMOVED.
BECOME THE MOST BUSY PLACE BECAUSE
OF THE ACTIVITIES.
Bath Of
Caracalla_______________________
FRIGIDARIUM
IS A COLD ROOM.
THIS PLACE FUNCTIONED TO CLOSED THE
PORES AND GET THE FINAL CLEANING
STEP IN OVERALL BATHING STEPS.
INTERIOR
Bath Of
Caracalla_______________________
NATATIO
IS AN OPEN AIR SWIMMING POOL.
THIS PLACE FUNCTIONED AS A PLACE
FOR RELAX AND REFRESH THE BODY OF
THE BATHERS.
INTERIOR
Bath Of
Caracalla_______________________
GARDENS
GARDENS THAT CONSIST STATUES,
FOUNTAIN AND ANY OTHERS FEATURES.
AFTER BATHING, PEOPLE CAN WALK
AROUND THE GARDEN AFTER A TYPICAL
DAY.
SURROUNDINGS
Bath Of
Caracalla_______________________
GYMNASIA
AND ADJACENT FACILITIES FROM THE
MAIN BUILDING.
PLACE WHERE PEOPLE HAVE EXERCISE
SIMILAR TO PRESENT GYMNASIUM.
SURROUNDINGS
Bath Of
Caracalla_______________________
STUDY ROOM
OR A LIBRARIES FOR PEOPLE FACILITIES.
HAVE TWO SEPARATED LIBRARIES WHICH
IS ONE FOR LATIN AND ANOTHER FOR
GREEK LANGUAGE.
SURROUNDINGS
Bath Of
Caracalla_______________________SECTION
THE BUILDING HAVE TWO LEVELS WHICH IS
THE LOWER LEVEL IS A PLACE FOR THE
SYSTEM USED TO HEATING SEVERAL ROOMS
AND ALSO FOR THE DRAINAGE.
UPPER LEVEL IS A PLACE WHERE ALL
FEATURES LIKE STATUE AND FOUNTAIN
LOCATED AND FOR ALL HUMAN ACTIVITIES.
Bath Of
Caracalla_______________________ELEVATION
THE MAIN BUILDING CLEARLY
SURROUNDED BY THE
GARDEN.
THE STRUCTURE IS MADE OUT
FROM TOUGH BRICKS AND A
MARBLE MATERIALS LIKE
MOSAIC.
URBAN
PLANNING
The ancient Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planning, developed for
military defense and civil convenience.
The basic plan consisted of a central forum with city services, surrounded by a
compact, rectilinear grid of streets, and wrapped in a wall for defense.
To reduce travel times, two diagonal streets crossed the square grid, passing through
the central square.
A river usually flowed through the city, providing water, transport, and sewage
disposal.
Many European towns, preserve the remains of these schemes, which show the very
logical way the Romans designed their cities.
They would lay out the streets at right angles, in the form of a square grid. All roads
were equal in width and length, except for two, which were slightly wider than the
others.
One of these ran east–west, the other, north–south, and intersected in the middle to
form the center of the grid.
All roads were made of carefully fitted flag stones and filled in with smaller, hard-
packed rocks and pebbles.
The city was surrounded by a wall to protect it from invaders and to mark the city
limits.
Areas outside city limits were left open as farmland.
At the end of each main road was a large gateway with watchtowers.
A portcullis covered the opening when the city was under siege, and additional
watchtowers were constructed along the city walls.

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Rome

  • 3. Origins of Rome • Rome was founded in the 8th Century B.C. and was originally a small city-state ruled by a single king • Late in the 6th Century B.C., the city’s aristocrats deposed the king, ended the monarchy, and instituted a republic – A republic is a form of government in which delegates represent the interests of various constituents • The Roman republic survived for over 500 years and at one time dominated the Mediterranean basin
  • 4. Location •Rome is the capital of Italy . • The city of Rome is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy. • Rome's history spans over two and a half thousand years. • It was the capital city of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, which was the dominant power in Western Europe and the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea for over seven hundred years from the 1st Century BC until the 7th
  • 5. Rise of Rome • From humble beginnings, Rome grew into a strong commercial center, in part because of its geographic location – Rome enjoyed easy access to the Mediterranean via the Tiber River, but because it was not on the coast, it was safe from invasion or attack by the sea • By the 6th Century B.C., trade routes from all parts of Italy converged in Rome
  • 7. Establishment of the Republic • When the aristocracy deposed the king in 509 and established a republic, they instituted a republican constitution – Executive responsibilities were entrusted to two consuls who wielded civil and military power – Consuls were elected by an assembly dominated by hereditary aristocrats and wealthy classes – Consuls served one year terms
  • 8. Establishment of the Republic • The Senate was composed mostly of aristocrats with extensive political experience • They advised the consuls and ratified all major decisions Roman Senate house
  • 9. Patricians versus Plebeians • Both the consuls and the Senate represented the interests of the patricians– the hereditary aristocrats and wealthy classes • This caused tension between the patricians and the common people– the plebeians In honor of the Roman plebeians, freshmen at West Point are called plebes
  • 10. Patricians versus Plebeians • In the early 5th Century, tensions got so bad that the plebeians threatened to secede from Rome and establish a rival settlement • In order to maintain the integrity of the Roman state, the patricians granted the plebeians the right to elect officials known as tribunes to represent their interests
  • 11. Patricians versus Plebeians • Originally the plebeians were authorized two tribunes, but that number eventually rose to ten • Tribunes had the power to intervene in all political matters and to veto measures they thought were unfair – Still the patricians continued to dominate Rome
  • 12. Increased Representation for Plebeians • During the 4th Century, plebeians became eligible to hold almost all state offices and gained the right to have one of the consuls come from their ranks • By the early 3rd Century, plebeian-dominated assemblies won the power to make decisions binding on all of Rome • Republican Rome was gradually broadening the base of political participation
  • 13. Dictators • In times of civil or military crisis, the Roman constitution allowed for the appointment of a dictator who wielded absolute power for a term of six months Cincinnatus, shown here handing the rods of power back to the city fathers, served as dictator of Rome twice
  • 14. From Republic to Empire • Imperial expansion brought wealth to Rome, but the wealth was unequally distributed which aggravated class tensions – Conflicts arose over political and social policies – During the 1st Century B.C. and the 1st Century A.D., Roman civil and military leaders will gradually dismantle the republican constitution and replace it with a centralized imperial form of government
  • 15. Bigger Problem • The problem of land distribution was a symptom of a bigger problem – The constitution of the Roman republic had been designed for a small city-state – It was not suitable for a large and growing empire • Roman politicians and generals began jockeying for power and several raised personal armies for support
  • 16. Civil War • The two most important generals were Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla – Marius sided with social reformers who favored redistribution of land – Sulla sided with the conservative and aristocratic classes SullaMarius
  • 17. Civil War • In 87 B.C., Marius marched on Rome, placed the city under military occupation, and began hunting down his enemies • When Marius died the next year, Sulla moved to replace him • In 83, Sulla seized Rome and began slaughtering his enemies
  • 18. Roman Religion A Temple of VestaJupiter
  • 19. Roman Religion • For centuries the Romans were polytheists. • Roman religion was a mixture of rituals, superstitions, and traditions which they collected over the years from a number of sources. • Roman religious ritual was designed to appease the gods.
  • 20. Roman Religion Household Worship • The father acted as the priest. He led the family in prayer to household gods like: • Janus: the god protecting the doorway. • Vesta: the god of the hearth. Public Worship • The Romans adopted Greek Gods and changed their names. These were often the gods worshiped in public.
  • 21. Roman Religion Mystery Cults • Secret rituals were only known to those initiated into the faith. • From Egypt - the Cult of Isis • From Persia, the Cult of Mithras - only admitted men and was very popular among soldiers. This was one of several resurrection cults. Initiates were baptized with cow’s blood.
  • 23. •Men typically wore a toga, and women a stola. • The woman's stola looked different than a toga, and was usually brightly coloured. • The cloth and the dress distinguished one class of people from the other class.
  • 24. •The tunic worn by plebeians, or common people, like shepherds and slaves, was made from coarse and dark material. • whereas the tunic worn by patricians was of linen or white wool. A knight or magistrate would wear an augusticlavus, a tunic bearing small purple studs. •Senators wore tunics with broad red stripes, called tunica laticlavia. • Military tunics were shorter than the ones worn by civilians.
  • 25. Even footwear indicated a person's social status. Patricians wore red and orange sandals, senators had brown footwear, consuls had white shoes, and soldiers wore heavy boots. The Romans also invented socks for those soldiers required to fight on the northern frontiers, sometimes worn in sandals.
  • 27. •Romans had simple food habits. •Staple food was simple, generally consumed at • around 11 o'clock, and consisted of bread, salad, cheese, • fruits, nuts, and cold meat left over from the dinner the night before. •The Roman poet, Horace mentions another Roman favorite, the olive, in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: • "As for me, olives, endives, and smooth mallows provide sustenance.“ • The family ate together, sitting on stools around a table. Fingers were used to eat solid foods and spoons were used for soups.
  • 28. Wine was considered a staple drink, consumed at all meals and occasions by all classes and was quite cheap. Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey were consumed as well. Drinking on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign for alcoholism, whose debilitating physical and psychological effects were known to the Romans. An accurate accusation of being an alcoholic was an effective way to discredit political rivals. Prominent Roman alcoholics included Mark Antony.
  • 30. Roman Family • The Roman family was headed by the paterfamilias, the dominant male. • The household also included his wife, sons with their wives and children, unmarried daughters, and slaves. • Unlike the Greeks, the Romans raised their children at home.
  • 31. Roman Family • All upper-class Roman children learned to read. • Teachers often were Greek slaves because prospering in the empire required knowing both Greek and Latin.
  • 32. Roman Family • Roman boys learned reading and writing, moral principles, family values, law, and physical training. • Roman males ended their childhood at 16 with a special ceremony. • They exchanged their purple-edge togas for the white toga of manhood.
  • 33. Roman Family • Some upperclass girls were educated privately or in primary schools. • At the time the boys entered secondary schools, however, Roman girls were getting married.
  • 34. Roman Family • Like the Greeks, Roman males believed the weakness of women made it necessary for them to have male guardians. • The paterfamilias usually was the guardian. • He also arranged the marriages of his daughters.
  • 35. Roman Family • The legal minimum age for girls to marry was 12, though 14 was more common. • The age for boys was 14. • Divorce was introduced in the third century B.C. and was easy to obtain. • Both men and women could sue for divorce.
  • 36. Roman Family • By the second century A.D. the paterfamilias no longer had complete authority in the family. • For example, he could not sell his children into slavery or have them put to death. • Women increasingly were not required to have a male guardian. • Upper-class women could own, sell, and inherit property.
  • 37. Roman Family • Outside the home women could attend the races, the theater, and events in the amphitheater. • In the latter two places they had their own seating section, however, and women could not participate directly in politics.
  • 39. What is Roman Architecture? • Roman architecture stands today as a testament to the ability and grandeur of this once great civilization that, at one time, covered three continents. The common style of architecture formed a thread that helped keep the vast Roman empire connected. • The Romans adopted the external language of classical Greek architecture for their own purposes, which were so different from Greek buildings as to create a new architectural style. The two styles are often considered one body of classical architecture. Sometimes that approach is productive, and sometimes it hinders understanding by causing us to judge Roman buildings by Greek standards.
  • 40. Roman and Greek Architecture The architecture of Classical Greece and Rome did not come about all at once, but came in different stages of design and style. There were five different styles that the Romans and Greeks used throughout classical times, from pre 500 BC to the first century AD.
  • 41. The Five Architectual Styles 1~ Doric Style 2~ Ionic Style 3~ Corinthean 4~ Tuscan 5~ Composite Order
  • 43. Doric Style • Columns built in this style usually had no base and consisted of a massive shaft with 20 flutes. Doric architecture predates the 5th century BC.
  • 44. Doric Style • The earliest temples were built in the Doric style. Doric temples are simple and strong. • In Doric temples, the columns have no base, but just sit right on the floor. At the top of the columns, there's a capital made of a sort of small pillow in stone, and then a square block, under the architrave (ARR-kuh- trayv).
  • 45. These are examples in which the Doric columns were used. The Parthenon in Greece The Colosseum in Rome
  • 46. Ionic Style • More visibly complex than that of the Doric style, being of slender proportion, and their height being generally about nine times the column's lower diameter; the order is always used with a base and the column shaft usually has 24 flutings.
  • 47. Ionic Style • In Ionic temples, the columns have a small base to stand on, instead of sitting right on the floor. They are still fluted, but they have more flutes than Doric columns. At the top of the columns, there's a double curve in stone, under the architrave (ARR-kuh- trayv). On the architrave, there is a continuous frieze (FREEZE) where the triglyphs and metopes would be on a Doric temple.
  • 48. This is an example in which the Ionic column was used. Temple of Athena Nike in the Acropolis in Athens
  • 49. Triglyphs and Metopes Most Greek temples have a pattern under the pediment known as triglyphs and metopes. The triglyphs alternate with the metopes across the front of the temple. Triglyphs have three parts, and then in between the triglyphs are the metopes. Greek temple at Agrigento, Sicily
  • 50. Corinthian Style • The Corinthian style is fancier and heavier than the Ionic style. • This is the most ornate of the classical styles and is generally much more slender than the Ionic style. The Romans used the Corinthian order in numerous monumental works of imperial architecture. They gave it a special base, made carved additions to the cornice, and created numerous capital variations, utilizing florid leafage and sometimes human and animal figures.
  • 51. Corinthian Style In Corinthian temples, the columns have a fancier base to stand on. At the top of the columns, on the capital, there's a stone carving of acanthus leaves, under the architrave (ARR-kuh-trayv). On the architrave, as in Ionic temples, there is a continuous frieze where the triglyphs and metopes would be on a Doric temple.
  • 52. Temple of Castor in the Roman Forum Maison Carrée in Nimes, France These are examples in which the Corinthian columns were used.
  • 53. Tuscan Style • The Tuscan column was the next form to be introduced and it was introduced by the Etruscans. The Tuscan Column is a very simple, plain column with a base and non- fluted shaft. No major examples of this architectural type survive today.
  • 54. Composite Order • The Composite form is a combination of Ionic and Corinthian orders. This form was the most complex due to the fact that it used the arch. Due to the advances of the Composite style of architecture and the skill that the Romans had with concrete, the Romans were able to develop such architectural marvels like the arch, the vault and the dome.
  • 55. The Pantheon These are examples in which the Composite Order was used. Arch of Titus
  • 56. The Pantheon • One of the most famous domed buildings to come from the ancient Romans was the Pantheon built in the last century BC by Marcus Agrippa and later refurbished by Hadrian. This building was originally built as a temple to all the Roman gods but was later converted into a Christian temple. This building has the honor of being the oldest, and largest, free standing dome in history. The Pantheon Inside the Pantheon
  • 57. Structure • Largest un-reinforced concrete dome in the world. – Dome was made to represent the heavens. – Built atop concentric circles before the final dome reaches a height of 43 meters – Oculus, “Great Eye” • Thickness of the dome recedes from ~6 meters at the base to ~1 meter at the top – Upper part of dome made from volcanic material
  • 59. Outer Architecture • Current ground level too high • Total of 16 Corinthian columns flank the entrance and two niches beside door. • Pediment not as wide and taller than most others – Done to hide the top of the dome from the front. • Extension of portico. Second Pediment? • Bronze doors
  • 61. Interior • Coffers leading up to the Oculus – 5 rows of 28 coffers each, housed bronze ornaments and statues. • Many niche’s along outer wall – Each niche may have housed statues to different gods and emperor’s. – After the building was given to the church, Christian alters and burials replaced the statues.
  • 64. Floor • Simple geometric designs adorn floor • Many different types of marble and stone used – Imperial Porphyry – Grey Granite – Docimian Pavonazzetta – Giallo Numidiana • Use of rare stone shows extent and power of empire.
  • 65. Aqueducts • The Roman development of the arch also led to the building of the great aqueducts for which were used to transport great amounts of water over vast miles of land. The need for aqueducts occurred in Rome during the mid republic due to the fact that the Tiber river had gotten too muddy and polluted from waste dumping and other deeds. As time went on, numerous aqueducts were built in Rome and throughout the empire in general. • Perhaps the most well preserved aqueduct is Pont du Gard near Nimes, France Pont du Gard near Nimes, France
  • 66. To transport the water over great distances, the Roman Aqueduct worked with the principals of gravity and they also had special basins between the source and the destination that would help purify the water. Once the water had reached the destination, it was kept in a storage tank where it would be distributed by pipes to different locations in the city. Some lucky upper class people had water piped directly to their residence, the earliest known form of a sophisticated pipe system.
  • 67. Roman Baths • With the water system that the Aqueduct allowed, the Roman public baths got more sophisticated and grew in size as time went on. • By the second century AD, public baths had grown in size and variety. In these new facilities, the pampered could do everything from eat, to exercise, and even read.
  • 68. Great Advances • The system that the Romans had for maintaining their bath houses was an engineering wonder. – In the cold and hot areas of the bath, the water temperature was actually regulated by the use of underground fire furnaces. – Also, the dirty water in the baths was actually drained and replaced regularly. – The bath house also had a hookup to the complex Roman water system and so always had an ample source of water, for both bathing in, and for drinking. The great sanitary conditions of the bath house were major factors that helped to make the Roman empire the cleanest society up until the 19th century.
  • 69. Amphitheater • The Roman Amphitheater, like most styles of buildings, was influenced greatly by the Greek civilization. These structures were generally circular and used the arch as their style of building but some were known to be built into a mountain or hillside. The theaters and amphitheaters were quite big in size and could hold upwards of 50 000 spectators.
  • 71. The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin:Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire.  It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering. Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era.  It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
  • 72. Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of ImperialRome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum. The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.
  • 74. MEDEIVAL Map of medieval Rome depicting the Colosseum
  • 75. The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period.  By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century.
  • 76. Interior of the Colosseum. The Stations of the Cross around the arena and the extensive vegetation, both removed later in the 19th century.
  • 77. The Colosseum in a 1757.
  • 78. Between 1993 and 2000, parts of the outer wall were cleaned (left) to repair the Colosseum from automobile exhaust damage
  • 79. Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop.
  • 80. EXTERIOR The exterior of the Colosseum, showing the partially intact outer wall (left) and the mostly intact inner wall (right)
  • 81. Original façade of the Colosseum
  • 82. Entrance LII of the Colosseum.
  • 83. Cross section of the colosseum
  • 84. THE ARENA AND THE HYPOGEUM The Colosseum arena, showing the hypogeum. The wooden walkway is a modern structure
  • 85. The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet). It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, calledhegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.
  • 89. The Circus Maximus (Latin for great or large circus, in Italian Circo Massimo) is an ancient Roman chariot racing stadium and mass entertainment venue located inRome. Situated in the valley between the Aventine and Palatine hills, it was the first and largest Chariot Racing Stadium in ancient Rome. The site is now a public park and retains little evidence of its former use. The Circus could hold over 1/4 of the city's population, over 250,000 people, allowing for this Circus to be a popular viewing place by the Romans. The Circus measured "621 m (2,037 ft) in length and 118 m (387 ft) in width. Map of central Rome during the Roman Empire, with the Circus Maximus at the lower right corner.
  • 90. The Circus Maximus viewed from the Palatine Hill.
  • 91. Chariot racing was the most important event at the Circus. The track could hold twelve chariots, and the two sides of the track were separated by a raised median called the "spina". The spina was set slightly diagonally. Statues of various gods were set up on the spina, and Augustus erected an Egyptian obelisk on it as well. On the spina, there were rotatable metal dolphins that were turned down to mark laps around the course. Chariot racing was an extremely dangerous sport, frequently resulting in spectacular crashes and the death of one or more of the contestants. One end of the track extended further back than the other, to allow the chariots to line up to begin the race. During these chariot races, bribery of the judge in order to fix the start of the race was very common. The race went for a total distance of about 6.5 km (4 miles). Prostitution was popular along the gates of Circus Maximus.
  • 92. The Circus Maximus retained the honour of being the first and largest circus in Rome. Ruins of the Circus Maximus (1983).
  • 93. ROMAN BATH • Roman bathing, which consisted of the Roman baths (or thermae) and also balneum • Early Romans used baths, but seldom, and only then for heath and cleanliness • Existence in 25 BC with the first thermae built by the Emperor Argippa • Most Romans bathed in local neighborhood balneum, with an average of 5 bath houses per block • Popularity of these balneum led to the creation of the thermae • Each emperor tried to improve upon the design, grandeur, and popularity of the ones before him • In order to create popularity, the fees to bath were practically nonexistent • The best and most grand bath complexes were found within Rome, as it served as the capital of the empire • The success of the bath complexes owes much to the technological advances of the Greeks and early Roman • The improvement of the aqueduct, the architectural usage of vaulted ceilings, and the hypocaust heating system allowed these great complexes to be as magnificent as they were
  • 94. Bath Of Caracalla_______________________MAIN BUILDING 27 acres complex (11 hectares). Accommodate up to 2000 people per time. Main building at the centre and covered by a thick wall consists of libraries and gym and also gardens. 6 feet height for loading purpose. Main building have upper level for service and heating and lower level for water drainage. Heating reservoir by Aque Marcia Aqueduct. The bath was known because of the rich interiors of marble seats, mosaic walls and floors as well as fountain and statue.
  • 95. Bath Of Caracalla_______________________ VESTIBULES FUNCTION LIKE A LOBBY OR AN ENTRANCE ROOM BETWEEN THE INTERIOR OF THE BUILDING AND OUTER SPACE. INTERIOR
  • 96. Bath Of Caracalla_______________________INTERIOR APODYTERIUM (DRESSING ROOMS ) A FIRST STOP PLACE FOR BATHERS BEFORE THEY GET TO A STEP BY STEP BATHS. EQUIPPED WITH BENCHES AND OFTEN CUBICLES TO STORE BATHER’S CLOTHES. COMMONLY ONE SLAVE WILL STAY TO WATCH THE BATHERS BELONGINGS.
  • 97. Bath Of Caracalla_______________________ A FACILITIES SERVE FOR TRAINING IN BOXING AND PLAY A KIND OF BALL GAME. THOSE ACTIVITIES WILL MAKES BATHERS TO HAVE SOME MODERATE EXERCISE BEFORE THEY GET TO BATHS. INTERIOR PALAESTRAS (EXERCISE YARD)
  • 98. Bath Of Caracalla_______________________ CALIDARIUM INTERIOR A HOT ROOM WITH A HOT POOL OF WATER – 35M DIAMETER. THIS POOLS HELPS TO OPEN THE BATHERS PORES AND ALSO HELP THEM TO SWEATS. A wing of the underground levels under the caldarium. The large dimensions of the galleries derived from the necessity to bring in horse-drawn wagons full of wood.
  • 99. Bath Of Caracalla_______________________ TEPIDERIUM INTERIOR A WARM ROOM ALSO A PLACE WHERE THE BATHERS CAN HAVE A MASSAGE AND BODY HAIR REMOVED. BECOME THE MOST BUSY PLACE BECAUSE OF THE ACTIVITIES.
  • 100. Bath Of Caracalla_______________________ FRIGIDARIUM IS A COLD ROOM. THIS PLACE FUNCTIONED TO CLOSED THE PORES AND GET THE FINAL CLEANING STEP IN OVERALL BATHING STEPS. INTERIOR
  • 101. Bath Of Caracalla_______________________ NATATIO IS AN OPEN AIR SWIMMING POOL. THIS PLACE FUNCTIONED AS A PLACE FOR RELAX AND REFRESH THE BODY OF THE BATHERS. INTERIOR
  • 102. Bath Of Caracalla_______________________ GARDENS GARDENS THAT CONSIST STATUES, FOUNTAIN AND ANY OTHERS FEATURES. AFTER BATHING, PEOPLE CAN WALK AROUND THE GARDEN AFTER A TYPICAL DAY. SURROUNDINGS
  • 103. Bath Of Caracalla_______________________ GYMNASIA AND ADJACENT FACILITIES FROM THE MAIN BUILDING. PLACE WHERE PEOPLE HAVE EXERCISE SIMILAR TO PRESENT GYMNASIUM. SURROUNDINGS
  • 104. Bath Of Caracalla_______________________ STUDY ROOM OR A LIBRARIES FOR PEOPLE FACILITIES. HAVE TWO SEPARATED LIBRARIES WHICH IS ONE FOR LATIN AND ANOTHER FOR GREEK LANGUAGE. SURROUNDINGS
  • 105. Bath Of Caracalla_______________________SECTION THE BUILDING HAVE TWO LEVELS WHICH IS THE LOWER LEVEL IS A PLACE FOR THE SYSTEM USED TO HEATING SEVERAL ROOMS AND ALSO FOR THE DRAINAGE. UPPER LEVEL IS A PLACE WHERE ALL FEATURES LIKE STATUE AND FOUNTAIN LOCATED AND FOR ALL HUMAN ACTIVITIES.
  • 106. Bath Of Caracalla_______________________ELEVATION THE MAIN BUILDING CLEARLY SURROUNDED BY THE GARDEN. THE STRUCTURE IS MADE OUT FROM TOUGH BRICKS AND A MARBLE MATERIALS LIKE MOSAIC.
  • 108. The ancient Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planning, developed for military defense and civil convenience. The basic plan consisted of a central forum with city services, surrounded by a compact, rectilinear grid of streets, and wrapped in a wall for defense. To reduce travel times, two diagonal streets crossed the square grid, passing through the central square. A river usually flowed through the city, providing water, transport, and sewage disposal. Many European towns, preserve the remains of these schemes, which show the very logical way the Romans designed their cities. They would lay out the streets at right angles, in the form of a square grid. All roads were equal in width and length, except for two, which were slightly wider than the others.
  • 109. One of these ran east–west, the other, north–south, and intersected in the middle to form the center of the grid. All roads were made of carefully fitted flag stones and filled in with smaller, hard- packed rocks and pebbles. The city was surrounded by a wall to protect it from invaders and to mark the city limits. Areas outside city limits were left open as farmland. At the end of each main road was a large gateway with watchtowers. A portcullis covered the opening when the city was under siege, and additional watchtowers were constructed along the city walls.