M.Ed Research- Questions & answers

1. Q.1 Researcher wants to study relationship between attitude towards inclusive education
and adjustment of secondary teacher. Write 5 objectives, 5 hypothesis, identify variables.
Write the scope and limitations.
A. Intro:
Education means learning for life. In order that Education empowers the individual with skills for
holistic life, the education system needs to evolve as per the individual’s needs as well as the needs
of the community and nation at large. The education model where all children reach their full
learning potential and decisions are based on the individual needs of the student and founded on
evidence is called Inclusive Education.
Inclusive education is a pairing of philosophy and pedagogical practices that allows each student
to feel respected, confident and safe so he or she can learn and develop to his or her full potential.
It is based on a system of values and beliefs centered on the best interests of the student, which
promotes social cohesion, belonging, active participation in learning, a complete school experience
and positive interactions with peers and others in the school community. These values and beliefs
will be shared by schools and communities.
Inclusive education requires complete participation of the Teaching Faculty. This possible only if
the teachers value diversity and nurture the wellbeing and quality of learning of each of their
members. Thus Inclusive education can be carried out only through effective teacher adjustment.
Teacher Adjustment, according to Carol Ann Tomlinson is the process of “ensuring that what a
student learns, how he or she learns it, and how the student demonstrates what he or she has
learned. It modifies is as per the student’s readiness level, interests, and preferred mode of
learning.” Teachers can adjust through four ways: 1) through content, 2) process, 3) product, and
4) learning environment based on the individual learner
Teacher Adjustment is an organized, yet flexible way of proactively adjusting teaching and
learning methods to accommodate each child's learning needs and preferences in order to achieve
his or her maximum growth as a learner. In order to understand how our students learn and what
they know, pre-assessment and ongoing assessment are essential. This provides feedback for both
the teacher and the student with the ultimate goal of improving student learning.
Teacher Adjustment is an integral part of Inclusive Education which is individually student
centered, with a focus on utilizing appropriate instructional and assessment tools that are fair,
flexible, challenging, and engage students in the curriculum in meaningful ways.
Working Title of the Research:
A study of the impact of Secondary Teacher Adjustment on Inclusive Education.
Objectives:
1. To make Secondary Teachers aware of Inclusive Education

2. 2. To improve understanding about Inclusive Education in Secondary Teachers
3. To measure relationship between Teacher Adjustment and Inclusive Education
4. To realize need for Teacher Adjustment in Secondary Teachers for promoting Inclusive
Education
5. To recommend steps that promote Teacher Adjustment in Secondary Teachers to achieve
Inclusive Education
Hypothesis
1. Awareness of Teacher Adjustment will lead to positive attitude towards Inclusive
Education in Secondary Teachers.
2. Secondary Teachers with more teaching experience will have better attitude towards
Inclusive Education than secondary teachers with lesser teaching experience.
3. Secondary Teachers having better Adjustment will have positive attitude towards Inclusive
Education than Secondary teachers with lesser adjustment
4. Positive Attitude towards Inclusive Education can be achieved in secondary teachers by
improving Teacher Adjustment through use of student-centred teaching methods
5. There is no measureable impact of Secondary Teacher Adjustment on Attitude for
Inclusive Education.
Variables:
Independent Variable: Attitude for Inclusive Education
Dependent Variable: Secondary Teacher Adjustment
Control Variable: Teacher’s Age
Intervening Variable: Teaching Experience, Student-Centred Teaching Methods
Moderator Variable: Teacher’s Gender
Extroneous Variable: Teacher’s Training, Classroom Environment, Teacher’s belief
Preferred Method of Research
The Researcher wants to study relationship between attitude towards inclusive education and
adjustment of secondary teacher. There interaction of two variables: 1. Attitude for Inclusive
Education 2. Secondary Teacher Adjustment.
The Attitude for Inclusive Education is independent of Secondary Teacher Adjustment which
depends on related (intervening) variables such as teacher’s teaching experience, student-centred
teaching methods, etc
Hence Descriptive Survey Method with test tool as Questionnaire will be useful to determine
the status of Attitude to Inclusive Education in correlation to Secondary Teacher Adjustment.

3. Scope
1. The major scope of Descriptive method in the current research will describe the
relationship between Attitude for Inclusive Education and Secondary Teacher Adjustment
2. The Descriptive Method is has a cross-sectional approach which can establish link between
other factors like Student-centred Teaching Methods, Teachers experience, strength and
weakness of curriculum in the context of Inclusive Education, etc
3. It identifies present status of Attitude for Inclusive Education in general and points out the
need for awareness about Attitude for Inclusive Education among teachers
4. The Descriptive method using survey in the form of questionnaire helps in understanding
the impact of Teacher Adjustment on Students Achievement, Teacher Appraisal,
Personality Testing of Teacher etc
Limitations
1. Time Consuming and Large Sample size: Since the sample size needed for survey must be
cross- sectional to get a wider range of population the descriptive survey method can be
time consuming.
2. Planning of Questionnaire: In order that relevant conclusions and suggestion be drawn for
the research, Planning of Questionnaire is critical, which needs to include maximum
number of interrelated variables within minimum number of questions.
3. Return of Questionnaire: Since the sample is randomly collected, getting back
questionnaires which have relevant answers is doubtful
4. Reliability and Validity: Reliability and validity of data is doubtful
5. Difficult to analyze data. Only descriptive statistics can be used.
Thus the researcher needs to prepare the survey questionnaire with care such that maximum factors
related to Secondary Teacher Adjustment and Attitude for Inclusive Education are covered. Thus
will increase reliability and validity of data and help achieve relevant conclusions.

4. Q 2. Mrs. Thakur Class Teacher of Std VII B of A D Vidya Mandir has observed that her
students are weak in English Subject. As an expert in the field of Educational research help
Mr. Thakur solve her Problem.
A. Education is a transformation process wherein there is development of skills within the student
through the continual efforts of the teacher, such that the student can apply these skills in real life
situations. In order that the Education process moves with the times, research related to
enhancement of education methods, improvement of teaching-learning process, student- teacher
interaction, classroom management, teacher effectiveness etc. which help to improve overall
education system. This research is called Educational Research which contributes to the theory
and practice of education simultaneously.
According to Moore: ‘The final purpose of Educational Research is to ascertain principles and
develop procedures in the field of education.
Types of Educational research
1. Fundamental or Basic or Pure Research: This research is universal in its application,
anyone can use its inputs. The focus is to understand fundamentals related to education e.g.
Theory of Methods, theory of social learning. It does not produce results of immediate
practical value.
2. Applied Research: This kind of research is immediate in its solution, which are focused on
specific and practical problems. It is scientific enquiry of effectiveness of methods,
programs, strategies and teaching aids.
3. Action Research: This research is taken in classroom situation, based on specific problem
encountered by a teacher/ educationist such that the decisions/ conclusions drawn are
applied immediately after the research, which will bring about change in the operational
area.
In our current discussion, Mrs. Thakur as Class Teacher of Std. VII B of A D Vidya Mandir
has observed the problem that her students are weak in English Subject. The Class teacher is
dissatisfied with the fact that students are weak in English Subject. Hence she feels the need to
find a solution. So as an Expert in Educational Research I would suggest that she take up
Action Research on the said problem.
Steps of the Action Research:
1. Identifying the Problem: Std VII B Students of A. D Vidya Mandir are weak in English Subject
and Mrs. Thakur is the Class teacher
2. Defining and Delimiting the problem: The Action is taking constructive steps such as
Language lab, Programmed Learning, Grammar Tutorials etc to overcome weakness in English
subject faced by Std VII B students with the goal that their Skills in English subject show
improvement after administering the constructive steps.

5. 3. Analyzing causes of the problem: The causes of the problem could be the English as a third
Language, Poor Base in English at primary school education, Cultural barriers, etc. and which
have direct effect or indirect effect on the problem.
4. Formulating the Hypothesis: It is the statement of action, which indicates the action to be taken
and the goal to be achieved.
Hypothesis 1: “If Mrs. Thakur takes weekly grammar tutorials for Std Vii B students, then they
will improve in English Subject Skills.”
Hypothesis 2: “If Mrs. Thakur uses Programmed learning technique for developing English
Subject Skills then Students of Std. VII B will show improvement in English Subject.’
5. Design and testing of Hypothesis: As per Hypothesis 1, Mrs. Thakur will take weekly
Grammar Tutorial in English Subject for Std VII B students and observe the result over a set
period of time. If the hypothesis is not accepted than she will test the next hypothesis. If this
too not accepted then researcher can design new hypothesis and further test the same.
6. Conclusions of the Action Research Project. Accepting or rejecting hypothesis leads to
drawing of conclusion. The statement of conclusion indicates some prescription for the
practical problem solving.
Thus Mrs. Thakur can take up Action Research wherein she can modify and improve the skill for
English subject in students, through grammar tutorials, programmed learning and other techniques.

6. Q. 4. Researcher wants to study effectiveness of concept mapping in students. Identify the
variables involved in the research study and classify them giving relevant explanation/
justification.
A. Humans have from time immemorial been in search of Knowledge. Education is the process
through which the learner learns to apply knowledge into skills for life. For knowledge to be
applied as skills, the teacher breaks down knowledge in concepts. Cognition is the psychological
process which uses concepts (mental representations, including memory, reasoning and
using/understanding language) for perception, learning and reasoning. One function of concepts is
the categorisation of knowledge.
A concept map or conceptual diagram is a diagram that depicts suggested relationships between
concepts. It is a graphical tool that designers, engineers, technical writers, and others use to
organize and structure knowledge.
A concept map typically represents ideas and information as boxes or circles, which it connects
with labeled arrows in a downward-branching hierarchical structure. The relationship between
concepts can be articulated in linking phrases such as causes, requires, or contributes to. The
technique for visualizing these relationships among different concepts is called concept mapping.
A concept map is a way of representing relationships between ideas, images, or words in the same
way that a sentence diagram represents the grammar of a sentence, a road map represents the
locations of highways and towns, and a circuit diagram represents the workings of an electrical
appliance. In a concept map, each word or phrase connects to another, and links back to the original
idea, word, or phrase. Concept maps are a way to develop logical thinking and study skills by
revealing connections and helping students see how individual ideas form a larger whole. An
example of the use of concept maps is provided in the context of learning about types of fuel.[3]
Concept maps were developed to enhance meaningful learning in the sciences. A well-made
concept map grows within a context frame defined by an explicit "focus question", while a mind
map often has only branches radiating out from a central picture. Because concept maps are
constructed to reflect organization of the declarative memory system, they facilitate sense-making
and meaningful learning on the part of individuals who make concept maps and those who use
them.
Types of Concept Maps.
Topic maps: Concept maps are rather similar to topic maps in that both allow to connect concepts
or topics via graphs. Among the various schema and techniques for visualizing ideas, processes,
and organizations, concept mapping, as developed by Joseph Novak is unique in its philosophical
basis, which "makes concepts, and propositions composed of concepts, the central elements in the
structure of knowledge and construction of meaning."
Mind maps: Both concept maps and topic maps can be contrasted with mind mapping, which is
often restricted to radial hierarchies and tree structures. Another contrast between concept mapping
and mind mapping is the speed and spontaneity when a mind map is created. A mind map reflects

7. what you think about a single topic, which can focus group brainstorming. A concept map can be
a map, a system view, of a real (abstract) system or set of concepts. Concept maps are more free
form, as multiple hubs and clusters can be created, unlike mind maps, which fix on a single two
centered approach.
Title of Study: To study the effectiveness of Concept Mapping in students of Std VII for
learning of science concepts, using experimental method.
A Random sample of 114 Std VII students is taken, which are divided into two equivalent
homogeneous groups of 57 students each.
Effectiveness of Concept Mapping is studied by using experimental method by conducting:-
1. a pre-test measuring known content of concepts of the unit under consideration before the
concept mapping process ( administered to 57 students of control group- C.G)
2. a post-test measuring improvement of concepts of the unit under consideration after the
concept mapping process ( administered to 57 students of experimental group- E.G)
The amount of learning attained by the students in each group is compared, with
 The independent variable is the teaching method it stands alone and isn't changed by the
other variables being measured. The independent variable causes change in the dependent
variables.
 the dependent variable is students’ performance after concept mapping, it could change
depending on several factors such as how much previous knowledge the students had, how
much sleep they got the night before the test, or even how adjusted or anxious they were
when they took it. As we are looking for a relationship between concept mapping and
learning of science concepts, we are trying to find out what makes the extent of concept
mapping change.
 intervening variable is teacher’s experience because an intervening variable is one that occurs
between the independent and dependent variables. It is caused by the independent variable
and is itself a cause of the dependent variable.
 the control variable is students’ age – all are from Std VII. The control variable is something
that is constant and unchanged in an experiment. Further, a control variable strongly
influences values; it is held constant to test the relative impact of independent variables.
 the moderator variable is students’ gender because the effect of a moderating variable is
characterized as an interaction;that is, a qualitative (e.g., sex, race, class) or quantitative (e.g.,
level of reward) variable that affects the direction and/or strength of the relation between
dependent and independent variables.
 the Extraneous variable is Teacher’s belief, gender, classroom environment because these
are undesirable variables that influence the relationship between the variables that a
researcher is examining. These are variables the influence the outcome of an experiment,
though they are not the variables that are actually of interest. These variables are undesirable
because they add error to an experiment. A major goal in research design is to decrease or
control the influence of extraneous variables as much as possible.

8. Q. 5 and 8. What are the steps of Educational Research? Explain with Examples.
A. Research implies the discovery of truth. It is an intellectual activity undertaken with the
ultimate aim of scientific and systematic creation of knowledge. Educational Research refers to a
systematic attempt to gain better knowledge and understanding of the process of education, with
the aim of improving its efficiency. Since education is a behavioral science, the major concern of
educational research is to understand, explain, predict and control human behavior.
Steps in Educational Research.
1. Selection/ Identification of the problem:
2. Filling the Gaps
3. Stating the Objectives/ Goals
4. Formulating the Hypothesis
5. Collection of the Data and Testing the Hypothesis
6. Data Analysis
7. Finding, verification and interpreting the findings
8. Reporting Results
1. Selection/ Identification of the problem: Educational Research begins with the selection
of the problem that the researcher has identified for research. It must be a question that
can be answered through scientific inquiry. The statement of the problem must be
complete. Such that it can be presented in a clear form with relevant data or evidence
2. Filling the Gaps: The researcher based on experience and observation realizes that some
students in a class do not perform well in examination. Therefore he/ she poses the
unanswered question: ‘Which factors are associated with students’ academic
performance?’
3. Stating the Objectives/ Goals: The researcher then states the objectives or goals of the
study
i) To ascertain the relationship of anxiety with academic performance of students
ii) To ascertain the gender differences in the anxiety and academic performance of
students
iii) To ascertain the gender differences in the relationship of anxiety with academic
performance of students
4. Formulating the Hypothesis: The researcher may state his/ her hypothesis as follows:
i) There is a significant relationship between anxiety and academic performance of
students
ii) There is significant gender difference in the anxiety and academic performance of
students
iii) There is a significant difference in the relationship of anxiety with academic
performance of students
5. Collection of the Data and Testing the Hypothesis: The researcher uses appropriate tools
and techniques to measure anxiety and academic performance of students, selects a

9. sample students and collects data from them. He/ she uses appropriate techniques to
verify and test the hypothesis of the study
6. Data Analysis: He/ she interprets the findings in terms of whether the relationship
between anxiety and academic performance is positive or negative, Linear or curvilinear.
He/she finds that the relationship is curvilinear .i.e. when a student’s anxiety is either
every low or very high, his/ her academic performance is found to be low. However if the
student’s anxiety is moderate his/ her academic performance is high
7. Finding, verification and interpreting the findings: The researcher now tries to find
whether his/ her conclusions match those of prior researches or not.
8. Reporting Results: Based on the interpretation the researcher draws conclusion and
reports the results, which in case of the example is that students with moderate anxiety
are motivated enough to study regularly and systematically all through the year and hence
their academic performance is high.

10. Q 6. State the areas of Educational Research. Explain any 2.
A. Education as a process takes into account both the science of education and the art of
education. The science of education comprises the corpus of knowledge which is largely
responsible for making the art of education more effective. The art education has relevance to
class –room practices and for effective dialogue rapidly between the teacher and the students.
Since knowledge is rapidly expanding in all disciplines including education, there is need to
extend the frontiers of knowledge in areas which constitute the science of education. .
Based on this point of view, the fields of educational research can be classified in terms of the
following content areas:-
1. Psychology of Education
2. Philosophy of Education
3. Sociology of Education
4. Economics of Education
5. Educational Management and Administration
6. Education Evaluation
7. Environmental Education
8. Comparative Education
9. Educational Measurement and Test Development
10. Curriculum, Textbooks and Method of Teaching
11. Teacher education and Teacher Behaviour
12. Guidance and Counselling
13. Educational Technology
14. Value Education
15. Peace Education
16. Vocational and Technical Education
17. Inclusive Education
18. Open and Distance Education
19. Non-formal education
In order the researcher selects the problem for research, classification of the areas of
educational research is critical. We have considered the following:
1. Educational Management and Administration, 2. Comparative Education
1. Educational Management and Administration :
A) All Educational Institutions function due to the interaction of:
i) the Human Resource Principal, Subject Teachers, Assistant Teachers, Non- Teaching
staff, Class- four workers, Students, Parents, Counsellor, Experts,Vendors and suppliers etc.
ii) Material resources such as

11.  Infrastructure in form of Class rooms, Laboratories, Library, Washroom, Common
room, Canteen, Computer lab, Language lab, Playground, lightening arrangement,
audio- visual aids, teaching aids etc.
Educational Research is related to the interaction between the various human and
material resources, educational planning, educational legislation, school plant planning,
school organization, business administration, evaluation, supervision,, management of
resources.
B) Implications for developing policies with respect to recruitment of teaching and non-
teaching staff as per guidelines of NCERT
C) Job Analysis of Principal, Headmaster, Sub- inspector, district education officer,
deputy director helps in improving the educational administration and supervision of
educational institutions
D) Acts and Laws related to Education such RTE act and its implication influence
universalization of education, development and trying out leadership programs,
institutional viability in terms of size and curriculum offering
E) Goals of Education as per the NEP, decentralization, professionalization and
accountability
2) Comparative Education
Political, cultural, socio-economic and geographical conditions have an impact on the
education system of different countries. Comparative Study of education of various
countries helps to
 appreciate formation of the institution of schooling,
 measure the impact of financial security or poverty on the learner and learning
potential,
 impact of war and peace in citizen development
 education and national development in terms of economic growth
 problems of educational control and reorganization of curriculum
 role of universities,
 social education,
 impact of three language system over single language system
 Comparing Vocational Education Systems of two countries
 Interstate Grant-in-aid schools performance
 Comparative study of procedures, problems of textbook production, quality of
textbook and teachers’ reaction.
Thus the Areas of Educational Research are vast and interconnected, such that the research in
any one field will directly or indirectly be related to several others. The final purpose is to
improve the realm of education with its ultimate goal of universalization of education.

12. Q. 7. Explain with suitable example types and characteristics of hypothesis.
Educational research refers to the systematic and scientific inquiry of the educational process,
with the final aim of improving its efficiency. The steps of educational research are similar to
scientific method. These include identification of problem, review of relevant literature,
formulation of the hypothesis, collection of sample and data, analysis and interpretation of data
and reporting of results.
Once the problem is selected and defined, derivation of hypothesis is an important part of the
research process. Etymologically, hypothesis is made up of two words, hypo- less than and
thesis- less certain. The Hypothesis is a presumptive statement of proposition or a reasonable
guess, based upon available evidence, which the researcher seeks to prove through the study.
Hypothesis can be defined as a tentative or working proposition suggested as a solution to the
problem under consideration. The hypothesis is a powerful tool in research process to achieve
dependable knowledge. It helps the researcher to relate theory to observation and observation to
theory.
Importance of Hypothesis:
1. Facilitates tentative explanation of facts and phenomena that can be tested and verified. If
held valid, can lead to generalizations which help in understanding the problem.
2. Provides the researcher with rational statements, consisting of elements expressed in a
logical order of relationships or events that have not yet been confirmed by facts.
3. Provides direction to the research as they represent specific objectives.
4. Helps derive the variables or conditions/ parameters that need to be measured, controlled
or manipulated such that the research is valid and result is reliable.
Types of Hypothesis:
Researchers have classified hypothesis as:
A. i) Directional Hypothesis test the differences or relationships between variables, e.g.
There is positive relationship between an individual’s attitude towards experimentation
and his achievement in learning of physics subject.
ii) A research hypothesis that does not specify the direction of expected differences or
relationships is a non- directional hypothesis. E.g. There is difference in the anxiety level of
adolescent girls of high IQ and low IQ.
B. The researcher can also express the hypothesis in the declarative form, the null form and
the question form.
i) Declarative hypothesis is appositive statement about the outcome of the study, e.g.
‘The academic achievement of extrovert students is significantly higher than that of
introvert students’. Here the researcher makes a prediction based on theoretical
formulations of what should happen if his research is correct.
ii) Null Hypothesis is a statement that no relationship exists between variables under the
study. E.g. ‘There is no significant difference between the academic achievement of

13. high school athletes and that of non- athletes. The researcher can reject the null
hypothesis if there is significant statistical evidence to prove otherwise. Hence it is
also called testing Hypothesis or statistical hypothesis. Null hypothesis is rejected
only when the quantity of chance is 1 time out of 100 or 0.01 percent.
iii) Question form of Hypothesis is when a question asks what the outcome will be,
instead of stating what outcome is expected. E.g. ‘Will teaching children through
programmed learning decrease their test anxiety?’
The question form is less powerful than the declarative or null form as a tool for obtaining valid
information.
Characteristics of Hypotheses:
1. Hypothesis should be clear and precise: The hypothesis are clearly stated, they usually
avoid general terms like personality, intelligence, social class etc.
2. Hypothesis should be verifiable and testable: e.g. NCC problem promotes all round
development of high school students would be hard to test, because measuring all- round
development is difficult. Hence the researcher needs to develop suitable tools or
instruments which will provide measures of the variables involved, e.g. There is positive
relationship between concept mapping and achievement in science learning in students of
Std IX, is a testable and verifiable hypothesis, because the variables involved in the
statement can be defined operationally.
3. Hypothesis should state the expected relationship between variables: A satisfactory
hypothesis should state the expected relationship between the variables.
e.g. the hypothesis, ‘NCC problem promotes all round development of high school
students’ cannot be used because all round development cannot be measured by a single
variable. In case of the hypothesis, ‘There is positive relationship between concept
mapping and achievement in science learning in students of Std IX’, there are two
variables concept mapping technique and achievement in science learning which can be
measured, tested and verified.
4. Hypothesis should be limited in scope, stated as far as possible in simple terms
5. Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts: Hypothesis should be grounded
in well-established theories and laws.
6. The hypothesis should be specific not general.
7. Emotional Language should be avoided
8. Hypothesis should be based on sound theory or prior experience and observations worthy
of being tested.
9. Hypothesis should be adequate.
Thus it is important that the researcher formulates correct hypothesis before data is gathered. A
satisfactory hypothesis provides objectivity and non-bias to the said research.

14. Q. 9. What is the importance of review of related literature? Explain on- line reference and
off- line reference.
Research implies the discovery of truth. It is an intellectual activity undertaken with the ultimate
aim of scientific and systematic creation of knowledge. Educational Research refers to a systematic
attempt to gain better knowledge and understanding of the process of education, with the aim of
improving its efficiency. Since education is a behavioral science, the major concern of educational
research is to understand, explain, predict and control human behavior.
Educational Research takes advantage of knowledge which is accumulated in the part as a result
of constant human endeavor. It can never be undertaken in isolation. Hence the researcher has to
review related research which are directly or indirectly related to the proposed topic under study.
The theoretical and empirical framework from which the problem arises must be described.
Review of related literature in the form of research journals, books, dissertations, theses and other
sources of information on the problem is an important step in the planning of any research study.
The review of related literature makes it clear that his/ her problem has roots in the existing
literature, but it needs further research and exploration.
Review of related literature serves the following purpose:
1. Enables the researcher to define the limits of his field, define the problem of study and
delimit the problem
2. Enables researcher to prepare objectives of the study
3. Helps researcher select fruitful problems on which research can be conducted with relevant
data, findings and results and to avoid useless problem areas.
4. Helps researcher avoid duplication of well-established research findings which have
already been verified and whose results are valid and relevant.
5. Gives researcher an understanding of research methodology which refers to the way the
study is to be conducted.
6. Helps research develop suitable tools and instruments which can be used to gather data,
analyze data and interpret data.
7. Provides insight into statistical methods through which validity of results is to be
established.
8. Helps researcher to know about recommendations of previous researchers listed in their
studies for further research.
Sources of review of literature
The first step in reviewing the related literature is identification of the material that is to be
reviewed. Related literature is available either on-line through the internet or off- line through
sources available in the library.
1. Online Related Literature:
The World Wide Web or www is a part of the internet and is an excellent on-line source of related
literature. Through search engines such as Google, Yahoo, Rediff etc. a wide variety of topics can

15. be reviewed, using the browser. Search engines like Galaxy and Shodganga provide reviews of
research. The research results are usually ran in order of relevance.
For online references there are indexes. The Indexes are grouped under similar categories. The
result of an index search will list the websites resulted to the topic to be searched. It provides
an excellent starting point for review of literature.
2. Off-line related literature:
i) Primary Sources: Articles, books, dissertations, and thesis which the researcher directly
refers to for information on the topic under study. These help the research develop
deeper understanding of the subject at hand and enables him/her to make proper
judgment of the study. Though it is time consuming it provides the researcher with
good source of information.
ii) Secondary Sources: The researcher complies and summarizes the findings of the work
done by others and gives interpretation of these findings
 Abstracts: These include brief summaries of the contents of a research study or article.
They serve as a useful guide to the researcher and keep him abreast of work being done on
his/her own field. e.g. annual Review of Psychology, Sociology of education abstracts,
Psychological bulletin, Educational Administration abstracts, Indian journal of Applied
Psychology, Education Quarterly, Journal of Higher Education etc.
 Encyclopedias: These serve as a store house of information and usually contain well-
rounded discussion and selected bibliographies that are prepared by specialist. They are
arranged in alphabetical order, by subject and for each field of research, they present a
critical evaluation and summary of the work that has to be done. In addition, these suggest
the research needed in the field and provide a selective bibliography. e.g. A Cyclopedia of
education, Encyclopedia of Modern Education, Encyclopedia of educational Research etc.
 Education Indexes: Many education indexes are published monthly or annually. E.g.
Canadian Education Index, British education Index etc.
 Handbooks and Periodicals: Information about new ideas and developments often appear
in Annual Handbooks of Universities and Periodicals. They provide a medium for
dissemination of educational research and exchange of experience among research
workers, teachers, scholars and others interested in educational research.
 Thesis and dissertations: These and dissertations are preserved by universities that award
the authors their doctoral and masters’ degrees. An annual list of theses and dissertation is
issued to various agencies. E.g Dissertation Abstracts International, A survey of Research
in Education, 1973 etc.
 Newspapers: Many articles of particular interest to a researcher may be located through
newspapers. Current newspapers provide up-to –date information on speeches, seminars,
conferences and new trends while old newspapers preserve records of the past events,
movements and ideas, movements and are useful in historical inquires.
 Govt. Documents: These are rich in statistical data, research studies, official reports, laws and
policies which are not available in other places. These are available in national, regional, state
as well as local government offices.

16. Q. 10 Short Notes:
1. Note taking:
Note taking is an indispensable part of writing a research paper. Notes record information from
the related literature that researcher will use while writing research. Therefore, it is necessary to
critically evaluate the texts or articles he/she reads and to make reasonable choices about what
will and will not be useful for the research. Otherwise, he/she will be overloaded with
information and spend too much time sifting through notes.
To take effective notes, the researcher must do the following:
1. Understand the information. Before he/she can use information, he/she must understand it.
Taking notes is a good way to develop knowledge and comprehension of a subject; it is not
just a mechanical process of recording data. Reading a source, making decisions about
what is useful for the research, and writing the notes on index cards or in a notebook gain
insight related to the subject of research.
2. Select the information: The information to be used in a paper must be gathered from a
variety of sources, such on-line websites, blogs, search engines and off-line sources like
Encyclopedias, Newspapers, Government Documents, etc. such that they contain
information only relevant to the topic. Therefore, when the researcher takes notes, he/ she
must sort out the material that is needed from other information surrounding it in the text.
3. Record the information: To efficiently use the information from the sources, he/she must
record it in such a way that it can be easily sorted, reorganized, and incorporated into your
paper. This means that he/she should choose a style of recording that best suited to the
individual’s temperament and that lists all necessary information-- title, author, publisher,
etc., which will needed later for the bibliography.
The researcher then uses own words and take notes that briefly summarize (commonly known as
paraphrasing) the most important points of each source. Notetaking should be as clear and
concise as possible, where details are omitted. Researcher needs to stick to main points rather than
involved discussion or digressions.
Record notes either on index cards or in a notebook.
2. Card making:
They are index cards (you can also use notebook pages, a word processing document or database
document) on which you put all of the information you will need about all the sources you use.
They will help you to:
 identify the sources of quotations and ideas for citing your sources later (giving credit to
your sources).
 find sources again if you need them.
 make your works cited (a list of the sources from which you used borrowed material in
your project).

17. 4. Types of Hypothesis:
Once the problem is selected and defined, derivation of hypothesis is an important part of the
research process. Etymologically, hypothesis is made up of two words, hypo- less than and
thesis- less certain. The Hypothesis is a presumptive statement of proposition or a reasonable
guess, based upon available evidence, which the researcher seeks to prove through the study.
Hypothesis can be defined as a tentative or working proposition suggested as a solution to the
problem under consideration. The hypothesis is a powerful tool in research process to achieve
dependable knowledge. It helps the researcher to relate theory to observation and observation to
theory.
Researchers have classified hypothesis as:

18. C. i) Directional Hypothesis test the differences or relationships between variables, e.g. There
is positive relationship between an individual’s attitude towards experimentation and his
achievement in learning of physics subject.
ii) A research hypothesis that does not specify the direction of expected differences or relationships
is a non- directional hypothesis. E.g. There is difference in the anxiety level of adolescent girls of
high IQ and low IQ.
D. The researcher can also express the hypothesis in the declarative form, the null form and
the question form.
iv) Declarative hypothesis is appositive statement about the outcome of the study, e.g. ‘The
academic achievement of extrovert students is significantly higher than that of introvert
students’. Here the researcher makes a prediction based on theoretical formulations of
what should happen if his research is correct.
v) Null Hypothesis is a statement that no relationship exists between variables under the
study. E.g. ‘There is no significant difference between the academic achievement of
high school athletes and that of non- athletes. The researcher can reject the null
hypothesis if there is significant statistical evidence to prove otherwise. Hence it is also
called testing Hypothesis or statistical hypothesis. Null hypothesis is rejected only
when the quantity of chance is 1 time out of 100 or 0.01 percent.
vi) Question form of Hypothesis is question asked as to what the outcome will be, instead
of stating what outcome is expected. E.g. will teaching children through programmed
learning decrease their test anxiety?
The question form is less powerful than the declarative or null form as a tool for obtaining valid
information.
5. Characteristics of Research:
Research is a search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, with an open mind, to
establish novel facts, usually using scientific methods. The system that a researcher follows to
find out the facts that are hidden and not known to people, determines the validity, genuineness
and reliability of research. A research is biased or fake if there is no validity or reliability in
the research process. To undertake researches in different fields there are variety of procedures
and tools set by experienced researcher.
Characteristics of Research:
Certain terms are very commonly used in research and the success of any research depends on
these terms. These terms determine whether a research is free of biases, prejudices and subjective
errors or not.
1. Reliability is a subjective term which can not be measured precisely but today there are
instruments which can estimate the reliability of any research. Reliability is the repeatability
of any research, research instrument, tool or procedure. If any research yields similar results
each time it is undertaken with similar population and with similar procedures, it is called to
be a reliable research. Suppose a research is conducted on the effects of separation between
parents on class performance of the children. If the results conclude that separation causes

19. low grades in class, these results should have to be reliable for another sample taken from
similar population. More the results are similar; more reliability is present in the research.
2. Validity is the strength with which we can call a research conclusions, assumptions or
propositions true or false. Validity determines the applicability of research . Validity of the
research instrument can be defined as the suitability of the research instrument to the
research problem or how accurately the instrument measures the problem. Some researchers
say that validity and reliability are co-related but validity is much more important than
reliability. Without validity research goes in the wrong direction. To keep the research on-
track define your concepts in the best possible manner so that no error occur during
measurement.
3. Accuracy is also the degree to which each research process, instrument and tool is related
to each other. Accuracy also measures whether research tools have been selected in best
possible manner and research procedures suits the research problem or not. For example if a
research has to be conducted on the trans-gender people, several data collection tools can be
used depending on the research problems but if you find that population less cooperative the
best way is to observe them rather than submitting questionnaire because in questionnaire
either they will give biased responses or they will not return the questionnaires at all. So
choosing the best data collection tool improves the accuracy of research.
4. Credibility comes with the use of best source of information and best procedures in
research. If you are using second-hand information in your research due to any reason your
research might complete in less time but its credibility will be at stake because secondary
data has been manipulated by human beings and is therefore not very valid to use in
research. A certain percentage of secondary data can be used if primary source is not
available but basing a research completely on secondary data when primary data can be
gathered is least credible. When researcher give accurate references in research the
credibility of research increases but fake references also decrease the credibility of research.
5. Generalizability is the extent to which a research findings can be applied to larger
population. When a researcher conducts a study he/she chooses a target population and from
this population he takes a small sample to conduct the research. This sample is
representative of the whole population so the findings should also be. If research findings
can be applied to any sample from the population, the results of the research are said to be
generalizable.
6. Empirical nature of research means that the research has been conducted following rigorous
scientific methods and procedures. Each step in the research has been tested for accuracy and
is based on real life experiences. Quantitative research is more easy to prove scientifically
than qualitative research. In qualitative research biases and prejudice are easy to occur.
7. Systematic approach is the only approach for research. No research can be conducted
haphazardly. Each step must follow other. There are set of procedures that have been tested
over a period of time and are thus suitable to use in research. Each research therefore should
follow a procedure.
8. Controlled-in real life experience there are many factors that effect an outcome. A single
event is often result of several factors. When similar event is tested in research, due to the
broader nature of factors that effect that event, some factors are taken as controlled factors

20. while others are tested for possible effect. The controlled factors or variables should have to
be controlled rigorously. In pure sciences it is very easy to control such elements because
experiments are conducted in laboratory but in social sciences it becomes difficult to control
these factors because of the nature of research.
5. Methods to control Extraneous variables.
Extraneous Variables are undesirable variables that influence the relationship between the
variables that a researcher is examining. These are variables the influence the outcome of an
experiment, though they are not the variables that are actually of interest. These variables are
undesirable because they add error to an experiment. A major goal in research design is to decrease
or control the influence of extraneous variables as much as possible.
e.g. An educational psychologist has developed a new learning strategy and is interested in
examining the effectiveness of this strategy. The researcher randomly assigns students to two
groups. All of the students study text materials on a biology topic for thirty minutes. One group
uses the new strategy and the other uses a strategy of their choice. Then all students complete a
test over the materials. One obvious confounding variable in this case would be pre-knowledge of
the biology topic that was studied. This variable will most likely influence student scores,
regardless of which strategy they use. Because of this extraneous variable (and surely others) there
will be some spread within each of the groups. It would be better, of course, if all students came
in with the exact same pre-knowledge. However, the researcher has taken an important step to
greatly increase the chances that, at least, the extraneous variable will add error variance
equivalently between the two groups by randomly assigning students to the two groups.
Random assignment is a powerful tool though it does nothing to decrease the amount of error that
occurs as a result of extraneous variables, in only equalizes it between groups. In fact, even if the
experimenter gave a pre-knowledge test ahead of time and then assigned students to groups, so
that the groups were as equal as possible on pre-knowledge scores, this still would not change the
fact that students would differ one from the other in terms of pre-knowledge and this would add
"error variance" in the experiment.
The thing that makes random assignment so powerful is that greatly decreases systematic error –
error that varies with the independent variable. Extraneous variables that vary with the levels of
the independent variable are the most dangerous type in terms of challenging the validity of
experimental results. These types of extraneous variables have a special name, confounding
variables.
One of the most common types of confounding occurs when a researcher does not or cannot
randomly assign participants to groups, and some type of individual difference (e.g., ability,
extroversion, shyness, height, weight) acts as a confounding variable. For example, any experiment
that involves a comparison of men and women is inherently plagued with confounding variables,
the most commonly cited of which is that the social environment for males and females is very
different. This does not mean that there is no meaning or value in gender comparison studies, or
other studies in which random assignment is not employed, it simply means that we need to be
more cautious in interpreting the results.