May be used for PLE review

1. IN-DEPTH DISCUSSION ON
COMMON PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
Febby Kirstin L. Ibita

2. INTELLIGENCE
 Alfred Binet (1916) defined it as the capacity to judge well, to
reason well, and to comprehend well
 Lewis Terman (1916) defined it as the capacity to form concepts
and grasp their significance
 Rudolf Pintner (1921) defined it as the ability of an individual to
adapt well to new situations in life
 Edward Thorndike (1921) defined it as the power of good
responses from the point of view of truth or fact
 L.L. Thurstone (1921) defined it as the capacity to inhibit
instinctive response, imagine a different response, and realize the
response modification into behavior

3.  Charles Spearman (1923) defined it as a general ability
involving mainly the ability to see relations and correlates
 David Wechsler (1939) defined it as the global capacity of an
individual to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal
effectively with the environment
 Jean Piaget (1972) defined it as referring to the superior
forms of organization or equilibrium of cognitive structuring
used for adaptation to the to the physical and social
environment
 Robert Sternberg (1985) defined it as the mental capacity to
automatize information processing and to emit contextually
appropriate behavior in response to novelty
 Howard Gardner (1986) defined it as the ability to solve
problems or fashion products valued within some setting.

4.  Termites
Humorous reference to gifted children who
participated in Lewis M. Terman's study of
intelligence initiated in 1916
 Ceiling effect
A phenomenon or consequence arising from the fact
that the items at the high end or the more difficult
end of a test are not "high enough" or difficult enough
to accurately gauge the variable being measured in
persons who are at the very High end of the variable
being measured

5.  Crystallized Intelligence
 In Cattell’s two-factor theory of intelligence,
acquired skills and knowledge that are very much
dependent on formal and informal education
 Culture-fair Test
 A test or assessment process designed to minimize
the influence of culture on various aspects of the
evaluation procedures, such as the administration
instructions, the item content, the responses
required of the test-taker, and the interpretation

6.  Fluid Intelligence
nonverbal abilities, less dependent on culture
and formal instruction than crystallized intelligence

7.  Two-factor theory of intelligence
Spearman's theory of general intelligence,
which
postulates the existence of a general intellectual
ability factor (g) that is partially tapped by all
other mental abilities
 G factor
In Spearman's two-factor theory of
intelligence, the general factor of intelligence;
the factor that is measured to greater or lesser
degrees by all tests
of intelligence; contrast with s and group factors

8. CHARACTERISTICS OF G- AND S-
FACTORS
 Characteristics of ‘G’ Factor:
1. It is universal inborn ability.
2. It is general mental energy.
3. It is constant.
4. The amount of ‘g’ differs from individual to
individual.
5. It is used in every activity of life.
6. Greater the ‘g’ in an individual, greater is his
success in life.

9.  Characteristics of ‘S’ Factor:
1.It is learned and acquired in the environment.
2.It varies from activity to activity in the same
individual.
3.Individuals differ in the amount of ‘S’ ability.

10. GUILFORD’S STRUCTURE OF
INTELLIGENCE (SI Model)
 J.P. Guilford developed a model of intelligence
(1966) using factor analysis. He outlines topography
of the structure of intellect, providing an integrated
rationale for describing the many dimension of
intellectual performance. He suggests that there are
three basic parameters along which any intellectual
activity takes place. These are:
1. Operations – the act of thinking
2. Contents – the terms in which we think, and
3. Products – the ideas we come up with.

12. 1. Operations: It consists of five major groups of
intellectual abilities.
Cognition: It refers to discovery, rediscovery or
recognition.
Memory: Simply remembering what was once
known.
Convergent Thinking: This type of thinking, by
reasoning, results in useful solution to problems.
Divergent Thinking: This is thinking in different
directions, seeking and searching some variety
and novelty.
Evaluation: It is reaching decisions or making
judgments about information.

13. 2. Content: A Second way of classifying the intellectual
factor is according to the kind of material or content
involved. It involves five factors:
Visual Content: It is concrete material which is
perceived through our senses, i.e. size, form,
colour, etc.
Auditory Content: It consists of language, speech,
sounds, music and words
Symbolic Content: It is composed of letters, digits,
and other conventional signs.
Semantic Content: It is in the forms of verbal
meanings or ideas which we get from others.
Behavioural Content: It means social behaviour in
society.

14. 3. Products: When a certain operation is applied to certain
kind of content as many as six kinds of products may be
involved.
Units: Understanding the meaning of words, visual,
auditory and symbolic units.
Classes: It means classification of words and ideas.
Relations: It implies discovering relations of words and
ideas.
Systems: The ability to structure objects in space and to
structure symbolic elements and to formulate problems.
Transformation: The ability to look into the future lines of
development or to suggest changes in the existing
situations.
Implications: The ability to utilize present information for

15. THURSTON’S GROUP FACTOR THEORY
 Louis Thurston came out with the group factor
theory (1937) saying that Intelligence is a cluster of
abilities. These mental operations then constitute a
group. A second group of mental operations has its
own unifying Primary factor; a third group has a third
Primary factor and so on. Each of them has its own
primary factor. Each of these primary factors is said
to be relatively independent of others.

16.  He pointed out that there were Seven Primary Mental Abilities and
later on added two more. They are:
 Verbal comprehension Factor. This factor involves a person’s
ability to understand verbal material. It is measured by tests such as
vocabulary and reading comprehension.
 Verbal fluency Factor. This ability is involved in rapidly producing
words, sentences, and other verbal material. It is measured by tests
such as one that requires the examinee to produce as many words
as possible beginning with a particular letter in a short amount of
time.
 Numerical Factor. This ability is involved in rapid arithmetic
computation and in solving simple arithmetic word problems.
 Perceptual speed Factor. This ability is involved in proofreading
and in rapid recognition of letters and numbers. It is measured by
tests such as those requiring the crossing out of As in a long string of
letters or in tests requiring recognition of which of several pictures at
the right is identical to the picture at the left.

17.  Inductive reasoning Factor. This ability requires
generalization—reasoning from the specific to the
general. It is measured by tests, such as letter series,
number series, and word classifications, in which the
examinee must indicate which of several words does not
belong with the others.
 Spatial visualization Factor. This ability is involved in
visualizing shapes, rotations of objects, and how pieces
of a puzzle fit together. An example of a test would be the
presentation of a geometric form followed by several
other geometric forms. Each of the forms that follows the
first is either the same rotated by some rigid
transformation or the mirror image of the first form in
rotation. The examinee has to indicate which of the forms
at the right is a rotated version of the form at the left,
rather than a mirror image.
 Memory Factor. It means the ability to recall and
associate previously learned items effectively or

18. STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY OF
INTELLIGENCE
 Componential — analytical subtheory[edit]
 Sternberg associated the componential subtheory
with analytical giftedness. This is one of three types
of giftedness that Sternberg recognizes. Analytical
giftedness is influential in being able to take apart
problems and being able to see solutions not often
seen. Unfortunately, individuals with only this type
are not as adept at creating unique ideas of their
own. This form of giftedness is the type that is tested
most often (Sternberg, 1997).

19.  Experiential — creative subtheory[edit]
 Sternberg’s 2nd stage of his theory is his experiential
subtheory. This stage deals mainly with how well a task is
performed with regard to how familiar it is. Sternberg splits the
role of experience into two parts: novelty and automation.
 A novel situation is one that you have never experienced
before. People that are adept at managing a novel situation
can take the task and find new ways of solving it that the
majority of people would not notice (Sternberg, 1997).
 A process that has been automated has been performed
multiple times and can now be done with little or no extra
thought. Once a process is automatized, it can be run in
parallel with the same or other processes. The problem with
novelty and automation is that being skilled in one component
does not ensure that you are skilled in the other (Sternberg,
1997).

20.  Practical — contextual subtheory[edit]
 Sternberg’s third subtheory of intelligence, called
practical or contextual, “deals with the mental activity
involved in attaining fit to context” (Sternberg, 1985,
p. 45). Through the three processes of adaptation,
shaping, and selection, individuals create an ideal fit
between themselves and their environment. This
type of intelligence is often referred to as "street
smarts."

22. INTELLIGENCE: ISSUES
AND CONTROVERSIES

23. FLYNN EFFECT
 In the past 60 years, intelligence
scores have risen steadily by an
average of 27 points.

24. Measured Intelligence may vary
dues to the following:
 Author’s definition of intelligence
 Diligence of test taker
 Amount of feedback the examiner gives
the examinee
 Amount of previous practice
 Competence of person interpreting the
data
 Family environment
 Gender

25. Common Intelligence Tests
 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
Originally developed in 1916
Currently in the 5th edition
 Wechsler Intelligence Scale (WISC)
For children 6-16 years
Currently in the 5th edition (2015)
 Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of
Intelligence (WPPSI)
For children 3 years to 7 years, 3 months
 Ottis-Lenon School Ability Test (OLSAT)
 Ravens Progressive Matrices

26. TWO IMPORTANT TESTS
Standford-Binet Wechsler
asked to identify
intellectually limited
children so they
could be removed
from the regular
classroom and put
in special
education
Responded to perceived
shortcomings of the Binet
test thirty years later

27. STANDFORD BINET
 Ages 2 to 85 (or older)
 Now 5 main factors, each tested in verbal & nonverbal
domains
 Fluid Reasoning
 Knowledge
 Quantitative Reasoning
 Visual-Spatial Processing
 Working Memory

28.  Employs “Adaptive Testing” technique
Maximum amount of info
Rapport
Not to tire out test taker
Most of the subtests are not timed to
 Basal Level
 Ceiling Level
 Testing the Limit
Maximum amount of info
Rapport
Not to tire out test taker

30. WESCHLER TESTS
 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale- III
Measure Intelligence of Adults
1930’s Bellevue; to measure multilingual,
multinational and multicultural clients
Latest version WAIS-III updated and colored
materials.
Norms expanded including range 74-89

31. It’s been longer than we think…
 1949: The Beginning of time (WISC)
 1974: WISC-R
 1991: WISC-III
 WISC-IV (2003)

32. What is the Process Approach?
 How a child performs tasks is as important, and
often even more important, than the score obtained.
 Understanding performance on individual items,
including the kinds of errors a child makes, can
provide rich clinical information.
 Describing the strategies a child employs when
performing tasks provides a basis of interpretation
that resonates deeply with parents, teachers, and
even with the child.

33. Processing Speed Subtests
CODING (CD)
Individuals copy symbols that are paired with simple
geometric shapes or numbers within a specific time
limit.
SYMBOL SEARCH (SS)
Individuals scan a search group (of abstract
symbols) and
indicate if a target symbol/s matches any of the
symbols in the search group within a specific time limit.
CANCELLATION (CA) (Supplemental subtest)
Individuals scan both a random and structured
arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures
within a specific time limit.

34.  Remember that while instruments like the WISC-
IV can be a source of valuable information about
an individuals cognition and to a lesser extent
learning style, IQ tests are not designed to
identify dyslexia or diagnose general or specific
learning difficulties. They are tests of cognitive
functioning and any link between any part of a
WISC-IV ‘result’ and a learning issue needs
careful consideration.

35. Which is better?
SB can assess much younger & older clients
Both published in 2003
Both takes more or less an hour to admin
SB has short form, WISC assessors make use
of aftermarket publications
Both have child-friendly materials
Both have optional software for scoring and
report writing
Norming for 6 to 16 y.o. was 2,200 people
WISC included parent education as stratifying
variable, SB none
SB included SES & test taker education as
stratifying variable, WISC none.

36. Concepts in Personality
Testing

37. ACQUIESCENCE
 A test response style characterized by
agreement with whatever is presented

38. CRITERION
 The standard against which a test
or a test score is evaluated; this
standard may take many forms,
including a specific behaviour or
set of behaviours

39. CRITERION GROUP
 A reference group of testtakers who
share characteristics and whose
responses to test items serve as a
standard by which items will be
included
or discarded from the final version of a
scale; the shared characteristic of the
criterion group will vary as a function
of
the nature and scope of the test being
developed

40. EMPIRICAL CRITERION
KEYING
 The process of using criterion groups
to
develop test items, wherein the scoring
or keying of items has been
demonstrated empirically to
differentiate among groups of testtakers

41. FORCED-CHOICE FORMAT
 A type of item sometimes used in
personality tests wherein each of two or
more choices has been predetermined
to be equal in social desirability

42. GENEROSITY ERROR
 Less than accurate rating or
evaluation
by a rater due to that rater's general
tendency to be lenient or insufficiently
critical; also referred to as leniency
error; contrast with severity error

43. HALO EFFECT
 A type of rating error wherein the rater
views the object of the rating with
extreme favor and tends to bestow
ratings inflated in a positive direction; a
set of circumstances resulting in a
rater's tendency to be positively
disposed and insufficiently critical

44. IDENTIFICATION
 A process by which an individual
assumes a pattern of behavior that is
characteristic of other people; (2)
thoughts, feelings, or behavior on the
part of one person that resonates in
some familiar way with the experiences
of another person

45. WELSH CODE
 A shorthand summary of a testtaker's
scores on the MMPI clinical and validity
scales

46. TRAITS
 Personality Traits can be viewed as
the
distinguishing characteristics or
qualities
possessed by the individual.
 Traits are “dimensions” of individual
differences in tendencies to show
consistent patterns of thoughts,

47. STATES
 Personality States refer to a
temporary
behavioural tendency.
(Eg. A student may be described as
being in an anxious state before finals.)
 Whereas trait refers to an enduring
personality characteristic, state
usually refers to a temporary

49. RIASEC
 John Holland - forwarded that
people can be categorized as one of
the following:
Realistic
Investigative
Artistic
Social
Enterprising
Conventional

50. TYPE A PERSONALITY
 In Friedman and Rosenman's
typology,
a personality characterized by
competitiveness, haste, restlessness,
impatience, feelings of being time
pressured, and strong needs for
achievement and dominance

51. TYPE B PERSONALITY
 In Friedman and Rosenman's
typology,
a personality characterized by traits
that
are opposite of the Type A personality;
"mellow" and "laid-back,"

52. WHO IS BEING ASSESSED?
– Self as primary referrant
a. Self Report b. Self Concept
– Another person as referrant
a. Leniency/Generosity Error & Severity
Error
b. Error of Central Tendency
c. Halo Effect

53. WHAT IS BEING ASSESSED?
Insights, thoughts, traits.
Response Style
– Social desirable responding
– Acquisence
– Non-Acquisence
– Deviance
– Extreme
– Overly Positive

54. Two Main Personality Theories
1. Trait theory: people differ based on stable
attributes (called “traits”)
– characteristics lie on a continuum
– e.g., the Big Five
2. Type theory: people can be sorted into
categories (either one type or the other)
- There are many different personality inventories
that measure traits or types

55. Personality Tests – Using Traits
 NEO – Personality Inventory Revised (NEO PI-
R, 1992)
– Unaware of the Big Five, Costa & McCrae built
the NEO Inventory in 1978
– Assessed Neuroticism, Extraversion, and
Openness to Experience
– Added Agreeableness and Conscientiousness
– Items are behavioral statements

56. Examples of Items:
Neuroticism - Frightening thoughts sometimes
come into my head.
Extroversion - I don’t get much pleasure from
chatting with people.
Openness - I have a very active imagination
Agreeableness - I believe that most people will
take
advantage of you if you let them.
Conscientiousness - I pay my promptly and in

57. Personality Tests – Using Traits
California Psychological Inventory (CPI)
Gough (1957)
“sane person’s MMPI”
revised in 1987
based on 20 concepts
to predict behavior in social/interpersonal
situations
13 special purpose scales (e.g., leadership,
managerial potential)

58. CPI - one of the most popular personality
inventory
Measures: various facets of normal
personality; helps to make predictions about
behaviours
Gough’s theory (3 assumptions):
Important characteristics in all societies
and cultures
Understandable and useful for both sides
Valid predictors of future behavior in similar

59. 462 true-false items covers 20 scales:
– Dominance, Social Presence, Sociability, Self-
Acceptance, Self-Control, Responsibility, Well-
Being, Achievement vs. Conformity, Achievement
vs. Independence, Psychological Mindedness,
Flexibility, Capacity for Status, Empathy,
Tolerance, Femininity vs. Masculinity,
Independence, Good Impression, Socialization,
Communality
– 3 scales provide measures of test-taking
attitudes

60. Advantages:
1. Looks at interpersonal relating well
2. Predicts underachieving, potential
delinquency, job performance
3. Has good norming sample

61. 16PF FACTOR
Raymond Cattell developed the Cattel Sixteen
Personality Factor Test (1949)
Revised 4 times (1956, 1962, 1968, 1993)
Survey all words in the the English
language that described personal characteristics
(approx. 4000)
Designed to measure more personality
traits and conflicts than psychopathology
185 items across 16 scales
3 Point Likert Scale

62.  Suggests Personality is made up of 16
independent traits - Warmth, Reasoning,
Emotional Stability,Dominance, Liveliness, Rule-
Consciousness, Social Boldness, Sensitivity,
Vigilance, Abstractedness, Privateness,
Apprehension, Openness to Change, Self-
Reliance, Perfectionism, Tension
 Each item is scored a between 0,1, or 2
depending if
the item is scored correctly
 Raw score are changed to standard scores know
as

63. Supports:
1. Less time to give than MMPI-2
2. Has 5 global factors than correspond to the
BIG FIVE
3. Reliability and Validity
Criticisms:
1. Overeducated sample
2. New version more complicated to score
3. Converts raw scores to “stens”- hard for
people to understand

64. 16PF Applications
Research and Clinical Settings
Vocational Psychology
Personnel selection and placement
With adults or adolescents (16-yearolds)
and 5th grade reading level

65. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
 Myers-Briggs: based on Jungian theory of
personality
– Classifies individuals along 4 theoretically
independent dimensions.
 Uses:
– Career counseling
– Team building
– Family counseling
 Criticisms:
– Profiles generally positive
– Barnum effect
– Validation evidence is sticky
– Factor analysis shows Big Five solution

66. MMPI
 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory
 MMPI-II – most widely used
psychological test
 10 clinical scales and several
Auxiliary

69.  Items on the clinical scales of the original MMPI
were selected on the basis of their ability to
discriminate between normal and clinical groups.
 Clinical groups were comprised of depressed,
paranoid, schizophrenic, hypomanic,
hypocrondriacal
 Normal groups were comprised of University of
Minnesota students
 Initially items were selected from various sources –
clinical cases, textbooks, and previous tests

70.  MMPI-II was normed on a nationally
representative sample – 1138 men and 1462
women
 MMPI added several content and supplementary
scales
 A high score on a particular scale indicates
the likelihood that the individual possesses
those characteristics

71. Appropriateness of the MMPI-2
 For Adolescents persons 14 to 18 years
old MMPI- A
 It is not recommended that the MMPI – 2
be used with adolescents, although it may
be more appropriate than MMPI-A for 18
year old living independently of their
parents

72. Sources of Inaccuracy in Personality
Testing
Personality assessment largely depends on self-
report
Response sets may affect personality results

73. Social Desirability
 Some test takers choose socially
acceptable answers or present themselves
in a favourable light
 People often do not attend as much to the
trait being measured as to the social
acceptability of the statement
 This represents unwanted variance

74. Example items:
– Friends would call me spontaneous.
– People I know can count on me to finish
what I start.
– I would rather work in a group than by
myself.
– I often get stressed-out in many
situations.

75. FAKING
Faking -- some test takers may respond in a
particular way to cause a desired outcome
– may “fake good” (e.g., in employment
settings) to
create a favourable impression
– may “fake bad” (e.g., in clinical or forensic
settings)
as a cry for help or to appear mentally disturbed
– may use some subtle questions that are
difficult to
fake because they aren’t clearly face valid

76. FAKING BAD
– People try to look worse than they really
are
Common problem in clinical settings
– Reasons:
Cry for help
Want to plea insanity in court
Want to avoid draft into military
Want to show psychological damage
– Most people who fake bad overdo it

77. Random Responding
 Random responding may occur when test takers are
unwilling or unable to respond accurately.
– likely to occur when test taker lacks the skills
(e.g.,
reading), does not want to be evaluated, or
lacks
attention to the task
– try to detect by embedding a scale that tends
to
yield clear results from vast majority such that a
different result suggests the test taker wasn’t

78. – Detection:
Duplicate items:
“I love my mother.”
“I hate my mother.”
Infrequency scales:
“I’ve never had hair on my head.”
“I have not seen a car in 10
years.”

79. IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT
– Mitigating IM:
Use positive and negative impression scales
(endorsed by 10% of the population)
Use lie scales to “flag” those who score high
(e.g., “I get angry sometime”).
Inconsistency scales (e.g., two different
responses to two similar questions)
(Use multiple assessment methods (other than
`` self-report)