Second language acquisition

Textbook Littlewood, W. T. (1998). Foreign and Second Language
Learning. Language-acquisition research and its implications
for the classroom. CUP: Cambridge.
Course Instructor Dr Gibreel Alaghbary
2015
Second Language Acquisition

What does SLA study?
It studies children’s speech.
How does SLA study children’s speech?
It does so by collecting and analyzing children’s speech, and accumulating evidence for the
patterns revealed by the data analyzed.
Example
(data collected from a 2-year-old Yemeni child). Data in this course collected from the same child
‫كتاب‬/tita:b/
‫فاس‬/pa:t/
‫كرسي‬/tusi/
‫موزه‬/mu:ta/
Analysis
The child is able to produce /t, p, b/ but has trouble producing /s, z, f/. The child replace /s/ with /t/,
/z/ with /t/, and /f/ with /p/
Generalization
Yemeni children at the age of 2 can produce stops but have trouble producing fricatives. They also
replace fricatives with stops with the closest place of articulation.

Theories of Language Acquisition
“The Behaviorist theory” and “The Innate (mentalist) theory”
Behaviorism
Late 19 the century to 1960sPeriod of popularity
B. F. Skinner , and the title of one of his most major books is
Verbal Behavior (1957)
Bes-known proponent of
the theory
Language is behaviorEssence of the theory
Language is learnt by a process of habit-formation. It has the
following components: 1. The child is faced with a stimuls and
produced a response by imitating language (imitation)
2. People appreciate the child’s attempt and
reinforce it by approval (reinforcement)
3. To obtain more approval, the child repeats
language produced (repetition)
4. The child’s language is conditioned or shaped until it
becomes a habit (habit-formation)
How the theory explains
language acquisition

Chomsky’s arguments against the behaviorist theory of language acquisition
1. Imitation fails to account for the fact that children produce sentences they never
heard before in their environment (creativity in language)
2. Imitation fails to account for the fact that children make mistakes they never heard in their
environment (e.g. *daddy goed now.)
3. Imitation fails to account for the fact that from a finite set of rules, children can produce
an infinite number of sentences.
4. Imitation fails to explain how by the age of 5, a normal child will have internalized all the
rules of language with exceptional ease and speed.
5. Imitation fails to explain how children exposed to different input (e.g. different dialects of
the same language) ultimately derive the same rules of the language.

Chomsky’s alternate theory: The innate language-learning capacity
Mentalism
1960s onwardsPeriod of popularity
Noam ChomskyBes-known proponent of
the theory
Language is innateEssence of the theory
Children are born with an innate capacity for acquiring language,
which is called the Language Acquisition Device (or LAD).
How the theory explains
language acquisition
1. It is specific to human beings
2. Always operates in normal children from infancy to age 11 (also
known as the Critical Period for language learning)
3. It contains universal features found in all languages ( a
Universal Grammar)
4. It predisposes a child to learn any human language by
processing the data from the environment and activating the
rules of that language which are already contained in the UG
Characteristics of LAD

What is the ‘critical period’ hypothesis in language acquisition research?
It is a hypothesis proposed by researchers in the area which claims that there is an ideal
time to acquire language in a linguistically rich environment, after which further
language acquisition becomes much more difficult and effortful. This language-learning
capacity declines at about the age of 12.
What are the stages in the grammatical development of children?
1. Telegraphic speech
2. The development of inflections and function words
3. The development of transformations
4. Complex operations

1. Telegraphic speech
The early speech of children is called ‘telegraphic’ because it lacks inflections and many of
the ‘function words’ such as articles, prepositions, and pronouns.
At this stage, speech mainly consists of two words.
allgone sticky /bati du:du:/ “after the child had washed her hands”
milk chair /na:na: kuti/ “indicating where the milk is”
Dan Soblin (1979) proposes seven communicative functions of these two-word utterances:
1. Locating or naming this milk /ada na:na:/
2. Demanding or desiring more milk /di: na:na:/
3. Negating no milk /ba:ti na:na:/
4. Describing an event car not working /ba:ti bi:b/
5. Indicating possession Noor’s pen /nu: bagan/
6. Describing a person/thing bad pen /bu: ri bagan/
7. Questioning Where pen? /bein bagan/

2. The development of inflections and function words
There are three criteria for the order of acquisition of morphemes:
1. Observability of the referent (i.e., how observable the thing or event is to the child)
2. Meaningfulness of the referent (i.e., how meaningful the thing or event is to the child)
3. Distinctiveness of the sounds (i.e., how easy the production of the sound is for the child)
In what order are English morphemes acquired?
1. Present progressive –ing
2. Preposition on
3. Preposition in
4. Plural –s
5. Irregular past forms e.g. went
6. Possessive ‘s
7. Articles a, the
8. Regular past –ed
9. Regular third person singular –s as in runs
10. Irregular third person singular has
11. Auxiliary be

3.A The development of transformations: Negation
There are three stages in the acquisition of negation:
1. The negative element is attached to the beginning or end. It is not part of the structure of the
sentence.
Examples:
No the sun shining.
The sun shining no.
2. The negative element is inserted into the sentence (no or not). Children may use don’t but it won’t be
inflected for person or tense.
Examples:
I no want milk.
He not come.
He don’t want.
3. The negative element is produced and placed correctly. 2. Preposition on
Examples:
He doesn’t want milk.
I am not a doctor.

3.B The development of transformations: Questions
There are three stages in the acquisition of questions:
1. Children produce structures that have no question-word and no appropriate question word order. They
use intonation.
Examples:
See book?
You can’t come?
2. Children produce structures with a question-word but no appropriate question word order.
Examples:
Where daddy going?
Where my spoon goed?
3. Children produce structures with a question-word but the appropriate question word order.
Examples:
Where did he go?
Where are you?

4. Complex operations
In the last stage, children perform more complex operations such as:
1. Join two or more clauses into a complex sentence
2. Use conditional
3. Use passive structures
4. Use a range of forms for making requests, commands, offers, etc.
Examples:
I think it is the wrong way.
If you are coming, I will be happy.
He was left along in the house.
Can I have a minute, please?

Operating principles governing children’s speech
1. Avoid exceptions (this explains why children acquire and produce regular forms first)
2. Meaning relationships must be marked clearly (this explains why active structures are acquired and produced
before passive structures).
Caretaker Speech
Caretaker speech is the language addressed to small children by mothers, other adults, or older children.
Caretaker speech has the following characteristics:
1. It is generally spoken more slowly and more distinctly.
2. It contains shorter utterances.
3. It is more grammatical, with fewer broken sentences.
4. It contains fewer complex sentences.
5. There is less variety of tenses.
6. The range of vocabulary is more limited.
7. There is some repetition.
8. The speech is more closely related to the ‘here-and-now’.
Deduction from the study of Caretaker speech
If this kind of input is an important factor in the process of language acquisition, it may provide us with clues as
to the kind of input that will facilitate the learning of foreign language.

Errors
The first language learner approaches their target language with no language habits in their mind, but the
second language learner approaches it with a system of language (mother tongue) already internalized in their
mind. Some of these old language habits will facilitate (make easier) the learning of the new language; some will
hinder (make difficult) it.
Causes of Errors: 1. Transfer
When old language patterns (from L1) help acquire new language patterns (in L2), this is positive transfer.
Example:
I like fish.
An Arab child/learner will have no problem with this sentence because the word order S.V.O. is found in Arabic.
But when old language patterns (from L1) cause problems in acquiring new language patterns (in L2), this is
negative transfer. In this way, differences between the two languages lead to intereference, which is the cause
of learning difficulties and errors.
Examples of errors caused by negative transfer from L1
* He is angry from you.
* I bough the book with $110.
* Please write by a pen.
* It is part from the plan.
* She has a car new.
* She has car new.

Causes of Errors: 2. Overgeneralization of L1 rules
When a child/learner learns a rule in the target language, they tend to apply the rule to
all new words where the rule could be applied. They overgeneralize the rule.
Examples of errors caused by overgeneralization of L2 rules
* The childrens are happy.
(overgeneralization of the rule of plural formation)
* He have a new house.
(overgeneralization of the use of the verb ‘have’)
* She goed to Paris yesterday.
(overgeneralization of the rule of past tense formation)

Terminology
Errors caused by negative transfer are called interference errors. They are also called so because
patterns from L1 interfere in the acquisition of L2 patterns and cause errors. These errors are also
called inter-lingual errors - they operate across two languages.
Errors caused by the overgeneralization of rules onto L2 structures are called developmental
errors. They are called so because they indicate that the child/learner is developing the as a
language learner. The child/learner has learnt the new rule and is applying it, though wrongly, to
other acquired words or patterns. These errors are also called intra-lingual errors - they operate
within one language.
Contrastive Analysis is the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their
structural differences and similarities. Analysis results in hypotheses about the similarities and
differences between the two languages, which are used in designing appropriate teaching
materials and choosing appropriate teaching methods.
Error Analysis is the study of the types and causes of language errors. Analysis results in
hypotheses about the types and causes of errors by the language learner, which are also used in
designing appropriate teaching materials and choosing appropriate teaching methods.

Terminology 2 (continued)
Intra-lingual and Inter-lingual errors are also called systematic errors. They are called so because
these errors result from the fact that the child has internalized a language system. A third kind of
systematic errors is simplification by reduction. These are sentences in which inflections and other
morphemes are eliminated, resulting in sentences like * Go bathroom?
Another group of errors is called non-systematic errors. These are not the result of conflicting
language systems but the result of other influences. A learner may try to express something for
which they lack the adequate vocabulary. To compensate for this adequate knowledge, they use
communication strategies such as gestures, paraphrase, etc. These communication strategies
lead to errors, e.g, * I eat fruit. (in paraphrase of I had an apple).
Learners may also make errors of performance. These are errors caused by external factors. The
learner may be distracted, tired, upset or angry and make errors, e.g., * I didn’t said that (by an
angry English student). These errors are also called mistakes. Learners will be able to recognize
and correct them on sight.

Terminology 3 (continued)
Errors may be transitional or fossilized. Transitional errors are those errors
that will eventually disappear as the learner progresses. Fossilized errors
are those errors which do not disappear entirely and become permanent
features of the learner’s speech.
Interlanguage (IL)
is the intermediate form of language between the first language and the
target language. Its system is neither that of the first language nor that of
the target language, but contains elements of both.

Accounting for differences between learners
There are three non-linguistic factors which influence success in second language learning. These are:
motivation for learning, opportunities for learning, and the ability to learn.
1. Motivation for learning
Motivation is a crucial factor that determines whether a learner embarks on the learning task at all, how
much energy he devotes to learning, and how long he perseveres. There are two aspects for motivation.
First is the communicative need for a second language. A person is most likely to be drawn towards
learning second language if he perceives a clear communicative need for it.
The second aspect is attitudes towards the second language community. The learner with more
favorable attitudes will wish for more intensive contact with the second language community. If the
attitude is negative, there may be strong internal barriers against learning.
There are two basic kinds of motivation for learning a second language. The first is integrative
motivation – learning a second language is important for communication. The second is instrumental
motivation – learning a second language is a useful instrument towards employment (getting a job).

2. Opportunities for learning
Another important influence on the proficiency a learner achieves in second language is the quality
of the learning opportunities which the environment offers. There are four aspects of this
influence.
First is the opportunities to use a second language. It is important that the learner should have
access to situations where the language is used as a natural means of communication.
The second aspect is the emotional climate of the learning situation. In an environment where the
learner feels anxious or insecure, there are likely to be psychological barriers to communication. In
the typical language classroom, learners are often asked to perform in a state of ignorance and
dependence. When they don’t perform adequately, they may be subjected to comment and
correction. This can be frustrating.
The third aspect is the nature of the linguistic input. The nature of the speech addressed to
second language learners is an important factor in influencing how well they learn. The ideal input
is similar to the input received by the child: comprehensible, relevant to their immediate interests,
not too complex, but not strictly graded either.

The fourth aspect is the effect of formal instruction. In formal instruction, teachers attempt to
affect the course of learning. Mainly by controlling the learner’s exposure to the language,
providing opportunities for practicing the language, and providing feedback. A number of other
factors also affect the learning of second language, such as the methodology of teaching, the
personality and skill of the teacher, the ability of the learner, and the availability of time and
resources.
3. The Ability to Learn
This refers to four aspects: the learner’s cognitive factors (intelligence), personality, age, and
active learning strategies.
The first aspect is the cognitive factors. It has been found that there is a link between general
intelligence (IQ) and second-language learning ability.
The second aspect is personality. The personality traits of the learner can affect his second
language learning. Learners who are extrovert and outgoing get involved more in social
interaction, attract more attention from teachers, and are less inhibited when asked to display
their proficiency (e.g. presentations). Also, a learner with high self-esteem is less likely to feel
threatened when communicating in a strange language in an unfamiliar situation.

The third aspect is age. Children can learn a second language better than adults because they have better
learning conditions that adults. These conditions are summarized below:
 Children often have more favorable learning conditions: more time, exposure, attention,
communicative need, and opportunities for use.
 Children are likely to be exposed to simpler language.
 Children are less likely to hold negative attitudes towards other speech communities or to be aware
of other factors (e.g. fear of rejection) which may produce barriers to interaction and learning.
 Children ‘aquire’ language naturally while adults ‘learn’ it in a formal setting.
The fourth and last aspect is the active learning strategies. Successful language learners employ a wide
variety of strategies which demonstrate, above all, their active involvement in learning. For example,
they may repeat silently to themselves the sounds they hear from the teacher or other students. When
the teacher puts a question to another student, they often think out their own answer and compare it
with the answer accepted by the teacher. Outside the classroom, they exploit every opportuity to use
the language as a means of communication, for example by seeking personal contacts, listening to the
radio, or reading newspapers.

Communicative Strategies
Second language speakers often have communicative
intentions which they find difficulty in expressing,
because of gaps in their linguistic repertoire. In such
cases, they try to find alternative ways of getting the
meaning across. These alternative ways are called
communicative strategies. Some of these strategies
are:

1. Avoid Communicating
When learners are aware of gaps in their repertoire, an
obvious strategy is to avoid occasions which will present
difficulty. For example, learners may avoid discussing
topics for which they know they lack the necessary
vocabulary.

2. Adjust the Message
When learners are already engaged in a conversation, it
is too late to use avoidance. They may decide to alter
(change) the meanings they intend to communicate –
make the ideas simpler, or say something slightly
different.
Example
(We had delicious avocado milk shake)
We had nice juice.

3. Use Paraphrase
A learner may use paraphrase – for example,
circumlocution or description – in order to express the
meaning which he wants to communicate.
Example
(kettle) the thing that you boil water in

4. Use Approximation
A learner may decide to use words which express the
meaning as closely as possible.
Example
(pineapple) some fruit

5. Create New Words
A learner may create a new word/ phrase to express the
desired meaning.
Example
Let’s go to our guest-room.

6. Switch to the Native Language
A learner may decide to use a word/ phrase from his
native language.
Example
I want to ‫أنزل‬the latest edition of PDF.

7. Use Non-linguistic Resources
A learner may decide to use non-linguistic resources
(e.g., mime, gesture, or imitation) to make his meaning
clearer.
Example
(Put it on the desk, please) Put it there, please.
(It was round) It was this kind of shape.

8. Seek Help
A learner may seek help from outside – use a bilingual
dictionary or invoke the cooperation of the listener by
signaling that he is in difficulty.

The Effect of Errors on Communication in Second
Language
1. On average, vocabulary errors affect communication more
than grammatical errors. Pronunciation errors seem to have
the least effect, unless they are particularly serious.
2. In grammar, ‘global’ errors generally hinder communication
more than ‘local’ errors. A global error is one which affects the
overall organization of a sentence, such as the wrong use of a
conjunction or inappropriate ordering of major word groups. A
local error is one whose effect is within a group, such as the
omission of ending or the misuse of a definite article.

3. Learners who use a lot of communication strategies are
often difficult to understand.
4. The errors in verb phrases (e.g., tense) are rated as more
serious than the errors in noun phrases (e.g., the use of the
articles).
5. Native speakers are generally more lenient than non-
native language teachers when they are asked to judge the
degree of seriousness of an error.

6. Native speakers do not form negative judgments about
the intelligence and personality of second language learners
on the basis of shortcomings in their linguistic or
communicative ability.
7. Listeners with higher education tend to be more critical
of errors than other native speakers.

Acquisition-based Approaches to Language
Teaching
The learner’s attention should be almost entirely on
understanding and expressing meanings through language.
The approach that implements these principles is the natural
approach.
The underlying assumption is that it is mainly through
productive practice that learners internalize the system of
the language.

In the initial stages, there is often a silent period during
which a natural learner produced no language at all.
However, he is already constructing a system which will
enable him to speak when he is ready.
Learners can develop competence while they are silent. The
crucial factor becomes not so much whether a learner is
actually speaking, but whether he is participating in a deeper
sense: paying attention to the interaction and processing
mentally the language to which he is exposed. Learners are
encouraged to speak when they are ready to do so.

The Natural Sequence of Learning
1. Learners become ready to acquire item A (e.g. –s to mark
plural nouns in English) before they are ready to acquire
item B (e.g. –s to mark third-person verbs)
2. In mastering a particular structural operation (e.g. forming
yes/no interrogatives or negatives), natural learning
sequences pass through stage X, stage Y, etc.
This natural sequence is called the learner’s internal syllabus.
Knowledge of the internal syllabus enables us to organize the
content of the external syllabus and predict likely errors.

Recommendations for Teachers based on Insights
from SLA
 Language learning is a natural response to
communicative needs. Therefore, we should try to
ensure that learners are always aware of the
communicative value of what they are learning.
Learners should be helped to use the language for
expressing their own personal needs and their own
personality.

Recommendations for Teachers based on Insights from
SLA
 When possible, teachers should make the teaching
sequence reflect the learning sequence.
 If this is not possible, teachers should abandon the idea
of exact structural sequencing, so that the learner’s
inbuilt syllabus can follow its own preferred path in
processing the language.
 The language input should be simplified (not graded) in
order to make it more comprehensible on the model of
the typical adult’s speech to young children.

Recommendations for Teachers based on Insights
from SLA
 Errors are not a sign of failure. They represent
normal stages in the development of communicative
skills.
 If this is not possible, teachers should abandon the idea
of exact structural sequencing, so that the learner’s
inbuilt syllabus can follow its own preferred path in
processing the language.

 In the classroom, anxiety can hinder learning and
make learners reluctant to express themselves
through the second language. We should avoid
becoming over-critical of their performance, try to
create space for each learner’s individuality to
express itself, and work to produce a relaxed
classroom atmosphere.
If these insights from language acquisition are
implemented, it is hoped that second language
learning will take place with a degree of ease similar
to that of language acquisition.

Language Acquisition vs. Language Learning
Language Acquisition Language Learning
Children acquire a language that
is normally spoken in the
surrounding community
Adults learn a language that is NOT
normally spoken in the surrounding
community
Acquisition takes place naturally
in communicative situations with
others who know the language
Learning is a more conscious process
of accumulating knowledge of
language in an institutional setting
Acquisition is relatively faster; it
takes place with no language
system in the background
Learning is slower; it takes place
against an already acquired language
system

Language Acquisition vs. Language Learning
Language Acquisition Language Learning
Children have the advantage of
sufficient time, focus, and
incentive.
Adults do not have sufficient time,
focus or incentive.
The affective filters
(embarrassment, fear, lack of
identification with speakers, etc.)
are low for children.
The affective filters are higher for
adults.

Methods of L2 Teaching
The Grammar-Translation Method
This is the most traditional method of L2 teaching.
Vocabulary lists and sets of grammar rules are used to define the
target of language.
Memorization is encouraged, and written language rather than
spoken language is emphasized.

The audio-lingual method
Became popular in the middle of the twentieth century.
It emphasizes the spoken language.
It involved a systematic presentation of the structures of the L2,
moving from the simple to the more complex, in the form of drills
that students are asked to repeat.
The mthod was influenced by the belief that language is a set of
“habits” that could be developed with a lot of practice.
Critics of the method argue that it bears no resemblance to the
interactional nature of actual language use.

Communicative Language Teaching
Developed as a reaction against the artificiality of “pattern-
practice” and against the belief that learning the grammar of a
language will necessarily result in an ability to use language.
It emphasizes the functions of language rather than the forms of
language.
Classroom lessons are organized around concepts such as “asking
for things” rather than the forms of the past tense.
It is still widely used today.

Communicative Competence: the the general ability to use
language accurately, appropriately, and flexibly.
Grammatical Competence
The ability to use words and structures accurately.
Socio-linguistic Competence
The ability to use words and structures appropriately – in the
appropriate social situation.
Strategic Competence
The ability to compensate, via strategies,for any difficulties with
communication.
Terminology

Second language acquisition

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