2. • Western Philosophy: Ancient Period-Medieval Period
• Western Philosophy: Modern -contemporary Period
• Western Philosophy and Eastern Philosophy
• Reasoning: Methods of acquiring knowledge
• Religion: faith Belief And Human Civilization
• Religion: Eastern Philosophy
3. What is Philosophy?
• Philosophy is about:
– Finding answers to serious questions about ourselves and
about the world we live in:
• What is morally right and wrong? And why?
• What is a good life?
• Does God exist?
• What is the mind?
• What is art?
• Is the world really as it appears to us?
• What can we know?
• …and much, much more
– Questioning existing knowledge and intuitions to get closer
to the truth
4. What will you do when studying
Philosophy?
• Philosophy is different from many other arts
subjects:
– To study philosophy you have to do philosophy
• We analyze and criticize existing arguments
• We construct our own arguments
– We use fun thought experiments too
5. What will you get out of Philosophy?
• The skills are:
– Critical thinking,
– Argument skills,
– Communication,
– Reasoning,
– Analysis,
– Problem solving…
• Which allow you to:
– Justify your opinions
– Spot a bad argument, no matter what the topic
– Explain to people why they are wrong and you are right
– Philosophy basically teaches you to think!
6.
7.
8. The Philosophy Subjects
• What is it to know something (and how can
we come to know something)?
– Epistemology, philosophy of science, logic
• What is there (and what are the natures of
these things)?
– Metaphysics, philosophy of mind, philosophy of
religion
• What has value (and why)?
– Aesthetics, moral & political philosophy
9. Knowledge
• What can we have knowledge about?
• What does it mean to have knowledge
about something?
• Where can we get knowledge from?
• How can we get knowledge?
• Are we just brains in vats?
• Can we be sure we know anything?!
• Descartes: “I think, therefore I am”
10. Metaphysics
• What is time?
• Is time travel possible?
• Was there time before the universe?
• How did the universe start?
• What happened before the universe?
• Is everything in the universe caused?
• Is it possible for us to have free will?
• What is the meaning of life?
11. Philosophy of Religion
• What are the arguments for believing in a god?
• Do those arguments give good reason to believe in a
God?
• What are the arguments that certain kinds of Gods
cannot exist?
• Do those arguments give good reason not to believe
in a certain type of God?
• Why would a God who is all powerful, and all good let
bad things happen to innocent people?
12. Aesthetics
• How can we tell what
is art and what isn’t?
• Is popular art bad for
us?
• Why do people enjoy
watching scary
movies?
13. Moral & Political Philosophy
• Are there universal moral facts?
• What is the best possible life someone can
have?
• What makes actions morally right or wrong?
• What is the best form of government?
• Are human rights real?
• When, if ever, is it permissible to go to war?
14. Applied Ethics
• Applying moral theories to current real life
situations to assess what we should do
• Topics include:
– Animal rights
– Environmental ethics
– Euthanasia
– Abortion
– Cloning and genetic engineering
– Business ethics (e.g. is advertising immoral?)
– Global poverty
16. Greek Philosophers
Philosophers – “lovers of wisdom”
Sophists – “workers of wisdom”
– Teachers
phileo = love
sophia = wisdom
If sophia = wisdom and moron = fool,
then a sophomore is a “wise fool.”
19. Athens
Parthenon: Built between 447 & 438 BCE with adornments continued to 432 BCE.
It has served as a treasury, been converted both to a Christian Church and a
Mosque and was badly damaged when bombed by Venetians while serving as an
Ottoman armory in 1867.
26. The Beginnings of Western Philosophy
• Socrates and the Story of the Oracle at Delphi (from Apology):
Philosophy as a critical stance in search of proper definitions
27. External Nature
• Thales, water
• Anaximander, the indefinite
• Empedocles, air earth, fire, and water
• Democritus, atoms
• Materialism, Reductionism, Determinism, and
Mechanism
28. The Milesians
• Thales, water
• Anaximander (b. 610
BCE), The Indefinite
• Anaximenes (b585 BCE),
Air
• Plenums and the lack of
space
29. Thales of Miletus
636-546 B.C.
• Earliest known philosopher
• Studied Egyptian and
Babylonian astronomy and
mathematics
• Believed that the universe
was controlled by fixed laws
• Basic element – water.
30. Pythagoras
582-500 B.C.
• The universe could only be
understood thru numbers.
• Sun, moon, and earth
revolved around a central
fire.
• Each planet produces a tone!
• Famous for the Pythagorean
Theorem: a2 + b2 = c2
32. Protagoras
485 - 410 B.C.
• Most famous of the Sophists
• Believed that reason and
knowledge should be used to
achieve a comfortable, safe, and
happy life.
• Teachings to equip citizens for
life in the polis:
1. Public speaking – oratory and
rhetoric
2. Politics
3. Grammar – language
4. The art of being respectable
• Plato named one of his
dialogues after him.
33. Hippocrates
460-377 B.C.
• Founded a school of
medicine
• Rejected that sickness
comes from the gods
• Careful observations of
symptoms
• Acute
• Chronic
• “Holistic” healing
• Hygiene
• Diet
• Curative powers of nature
• The Hippocratic Oath
34. Democritus
460? - 360 B.C.
• Developed the atomic theory.
• Taught that the universe was
formed out of chaos through
the joining of atoms of like
shape and size.
• Atoma = indivisible particles.
• “the laughing philosopher”
35. Euclid
c.300 B.C.
• One of the most prominent
mathematicians
• Wrote The Elements
• Widely used till about
1903.
• 2nd only to the Bible in
numbers of translations,
publications, and study
• Greek – Arabic – Latin
• Said to Ptolemy: “There is
No Royal Road to
geometry!”
36. Archimedes
287 - 212 B.C.
• Greek mathematician – Geometry
• War machines and other devices
• Theory of buoyancy - “Eureka!”
• Law of the lever
• Archimedean screw
39. The Three Most Famous Philosophers
Socrates Plato Aristotle
40. Socrates
469 - 399 B.C.
• Critic of the Sophists
• Encouraged students to think
• Left no writings – skeptical
• Dialectic method
• Conversational
• Based upon reason and logic
• Popular among the youth a “gadfly”
in Athens
• Placed on trial for impiety and
corrupting the youth
• Was executed in 399 – drank
poison hemlock
41. Socratic Method:
I. Admit ignorance.
II. Never rely on tradition.
III. Continuously question.
IV. Formulate your own opinions.
V. Test your opinions with
others.
Socrates
469 - 399 B.C.
42. Socrates
469 - 399 B.C.
“The unexamined life is not worth living.”
43. Plato
427 - 347 B.C.
• Preserved and perpetuated the
work of Socrates
• Most important source of info
on Socrates
• Founded the Academy
• Wrote dialogues
– Universal Forms was a recurring
theme
– The Republic – most important
dialogue
“Those things which are
beautiful are also difficult.”
44. Theory of Form or Idea
• Form is immaterial, it is pure idea
• Form is eternal never change
(transcendent)
• Form is backup of all things
• Form build up relation of all things
45. Aristotle
384 - 322 B.C.
• Most famous student of
Plato
• Most famous teacher of
Alexander the Great
• Developed Logic as a field
of study
• Devised a complex system
of classification
– Used in biology
• Views on Government
46. Aristotle
384 - 322 B.C.
• Views on Government
• 3 Good Governments:
–Monarchy
–Aristocracy
–Democracy
• 3 Bad Governments:
–Tyranny
–Oligarchy
–Mob Rule
47. Aristotle
384 - 322 B.C.
• “All things in
moderation”
• “Man is by nature a
political animal.”
53. Philosophy and Monotheism
• From the Hellenistic Period forward, Monotheistic
Faith and Greek Philosophy engage in a complex
interchange.
• Athens and Jerusalem
• Pagan thought evolves into monotheism.
• Monotheistic faith takes on the charge of reasoning
out the truth.
• Christianity in particular comes about in the collision
of monotheistic faith and Greek thought.
54. Medieval Philosophy
• Consolidates the dialectic of Greek and Jew.
• Reasons out a philosophy in which faith is a
constitutive element.
• A tension between faith and reason ensues:
what is the precise relationship between the
two? How is one to live a life of faith, not
betraying it but rather enriching it with Greek
reason
55. Jew, Christian, Muslim
• Orthopraxy—Jewish faith emphasizes a code of
conduct, of practices in regard to one’s fellow
humans and God.
• Orthodoxy—Christian faith emphasizes a code of
belief, of doctrines in regard to one’s soul and one’s
G-d.
• Orthosociality—Islamic faith flourishes as a mode of
living, of law arrived at through social intercourse
infused with the inspiration of Allah.
56. PLAN
• The character of the Medieval Philosophy
• The main features of the Middle Age
philosophy
• The philosophers of that period
57. THE MIDDLE AGES
• During the decline of Greco-Roman civilization,
Western philosophers turned their attention from
the scientific investigation of nature and the search
for worldly happiness to the problem of salvation in
another and better world. By the 3rd century ad,
Christianity had spread to the more educated
classes of the Roman Empire. The religious
teachings of the Gospels were combined by the
Fathers of the Church with many of the
philosophical concepts of the Greek and Roman
schools.
58.
59.
60. THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS
• THEOCENTRISM - any philosophical problem is studied in the context of
God.
• THEODICY (God and justice)- the study which explains the contradiction of
the idea of God as Absolute and the existence of the world evil.
• THEOLOGISM – everything around is determined by God and eventually
reaches its aim.
• PERSONALISM – God is Absolute Personality, which served as a sample
for man creating.
• GNOSTICISM - derived from the Greek word gnosis (“revealed
knowledge”). To its adherents, Gnosticism promised a secret knowledge
of the divine realm. Sparks or seeds of the Divine Being fell from this
transcendent realm into the material universe, which is wholly evil, and
were imprisoned in human bodies. Reawakened by knowledge, the divine
element in humanity can return to its proper home in the transcendent
spiritual realm.
61. LOGOS
• Logos (Greek, “word, reason, ratio”), in ancient and especially in medieval
philosophy and theology, the divine reason that acts as the ordering
principle of the universe.
• The Logos is “present everywhere” and seems to be understood as both a
divine mind and at least a semiphysical force, acting through space and
time. Through the faculty of reason, all human beings (but not any other
animals) share in the divine reason.
• the Greek word logos being translated as “word” in the English Bible: “In
the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word
was God. . . . And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us . . .”
• The Logos, for instance, was identified with the will of God, or with the
Ideas (or Platonic Forms) that are in the mind of God. Christ's incarnation
was accordingly understood as the incarnation of these divine attributes.
62. St. Augustine of Hippo
• St Augustine was born
November 13, 354.
• He died August 28, 430
• He is considered the
patron saint of
brewers, printers,
theologians, sore eyes,
and a number of cities
and dioceses.
63. Education and Christianity
• St. Augustine was born at
Tagaste, which is now Souk-
Ahras, about 60 miles from
Bona (ancient Hippo-Reguis)
• His family was not rich, his
father Patricius was one of
the curiales of the city and
still was a pagan.
• Through the prayers of his
holy mother and the
marvelous preaching of St.
Ambrose, Augustine finally
became convinced that
Christianity was the one true
religion.
• His mother, Monica
64. Early Education
• At the age of 11, Augustine was
sent to school at Madaurus, a small
Numidian city about 19 miles south
of Thagaste noted for its pagan
climate.
• At Madaurus he became familiar
with Latin literature.
65. Pre-Christian Days
• Once, when very ill, he asked for baptism, but, all danger
being soon passed, he deferred receiving the sacrament,
yielding to a terrible ritual of times.
• His association with "men of prayer" left three great ideas
deeply engraved upon his soul: a Divine Providence, the
future life with terrible sanctions, and, above all, Christ the
Savior.
• But a great intellectual and moral crisis stifled for a time all
these Christian sentiments.
66. Education
• Patricius, proud of his son's success in the schools of Tagaste
and Madaura determined to send him to Carthage to prepare
for a forensic career.
• Unfortunately, it required several months to collect the
necessary means, and Augustine had to spend his sixteenth
year at Tagaste in an idleness which was fatal to his virtue
• They gave himself up to pleasure with all the vehemence of
an ardent nature.
67. Education
• When he reached Carthage,
towards the end of the year 370,
every circumstance tended to draw
him from his true course
• The many seductions of the great
city that was still half pagan, the
licentiousness of other students,
the theatres, the intoxication of his
literary success, and a proud desire
always to be first, even in evil
• Before long he was obliged to
confess to Monica that he had
formed a sinful liaison with the
person who bore him a son
68. St. Ambrose
• His religious problem
would come to end
when he went to Italy
under the influence of
St. Ambrose.
• Having visited Bishop
Ambrose, the
fascination of that
saint's kindness
induced him to
become a regular
attendant at his
preaching's.
69. Bishop of Hippo
• In 391 he was ordained a
priest in Hippo Regius
• He became a famous
preacher and was noted for
combating the Manichaean
religion, to which he had
formerly adhered.
• In 396 he became Bishop of
Hippo
70. Teaching of Philosophy
• Along with being a prominent figure in the religious spectrum,
Augustine was also very influential in the history of education.
• He introduced the theory of three different types of students,
and instructed teachers to adapt their teaching styles to each
student's individual learning style.
• He claimed there are two basic styles a teacher uses when
speaking to the students.
• The mixed style includes complex and sometimes showy
language to help students see the beautiful artistry of the
subject they are studying.
• The grand style is not quite as elegant as the mixed style, but
is exciting and heartfelt, with the purpose of igniting the same
passion in the students' hearts.
71. Pelagian Heresy
• St. Augustine was involved
was his battle against
Pelagianism.
• The Pelagians denied
original sin and the fall of
humanity.
72. Confessions
• His Confessions is
considered a classic of
Christian autobiography.
• The work outlines
Augustine's sinful youth and
his conversion to
Christianity.
• St. Augustine writes about
how much he regrets having
led a sinful and immoral life.
He discusses his regrets for
following the Manichaean
religion and believing in
astrology
73. St Augustine’s Books
• City of God a mammoth
defense of Christianity
against its pagan critics,
and famous especially for
the uniquely Christian view
of history elaborated in its
pages.
• On the Trinity comes from
his polemic writings.
• On the Work of Monks, has
been much used by
monastics.
74. Influence on the Church
• Later, within the Roman
Catholic Church, the
writings of Cornelius
Jansen, who claimed heavy
influence from Augustine,
would form the basis of the
movement known as
Jansenism.
• Augustine was canonized
by popular acclaim, and
later recognized as a
Doctor of the Church in
1303 by Pope Boniface VIII
• His feast day is August 28,
the day on which he died.
75. St. Augustine’s Death
• Shortly before Augustine's
death, Roman Africa was
overrun by the Vandals, a
warlike tribe with Arian
sympathies.
• They had entered Africa at the
instigation of Count Boniface,
but soon turned to lawlessness,
plundering private citizens and
churches and killing many of
the inhabitants.
• The Vandals arrived in the
spring of 430 to besiege Hippo
and during that time, Augustine
endured his final illness.
76. SCHOLASTICISM
• philosophic and theological movement that attempted to use natural
human reason, in particular, the philosophy and science of Aristotle, to
understand the supernatural content of Christian revelation.
• It was dominant in the medieval Christian schools and universities of
Europe from about the middle of the 11th century to about the middle of
the 15th century.
• The ultimate ideal of the movement was to integrate into an ordered
system both the natural wisdom of Greece and Rome and the religious
wisdom of Christianity.
• Nonetheless, throughout the Scholastic period, philosophy was called the
servant of theology, not only because the truth of philosophy was
subordinated to that of theology, but also because the theologian used
philosophy to understand and explain revelation.
78. • Aquinas, Saint Thomas,
sometimes called the Angelic
Doctor and the Prince of
Scholastics (1225-1274),
Italian philosopher and
theologian, whose works have
made him the most important
figure in Scholastic philosophy
and one of the leading Roman
Catholic theologians.
79. SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS
• Aquinas combined Aristotelian science and Augustinian
theology into a comprehensive system of thought that later
became the authoritative philosophy of the Roman Catholic
Church.
• He wrote on every known subject in philosophy and science,
and his major work, Summa Theologica, in which he presents
a persuasive and systematic structure of ideas, still constitute
a powerful influence on Western thought. His writings reflect
the renewed interest of his time in reason, nature, and
worldly happiness, together with its religious faith and
concern for salvation.
80. • Aquinas made many important investigations into the philosophy of
religion, including an extremely influential study of the attributes of God,
such as omnipotence, omniscience, eternity.
• He also provided a new account of the relationship between faith and
reason that the truths of faith and the truths of reason cannot conflict but
rather apply to different realms. The truths of natural science and
philosophy are discovered by reasoning from facts of experience, whereas
the tenets of revealed religion, the doctrine of the Trinity, the creation of
the world, and other articles of Christian dogma are beyond rational
comprehension, although not inconsistent with reason, and must be
accepted on faith. The metaphysics, theory of knowledge, ethics, and
politics of Aquinas were derived mainly from Aristotle, but he added the
Augustinian virtues of faith, hope, and charity and the goal of eternal
salvation through grace to Aristotle’s naturalistic ethics with its goal of
worldly happiness.
81. Life and Significance
• Educated as Friar (Dominican Order), Studies Theology in
Cologne and Paris, Teaches in Paris and various Italian Cities
• Most famous Works Summa contra Gentiles, Summa
Theologiae (unfinished), numerous biblical and philosophical
Commentaries
• Scholasticism and the Revival of Learning
• Canonized in 1323
• Aquinas’ work is declared the official ‘philosophy’ of the
Catholic church in 1879
82. Aquinas’ Challenge
• The Return of Aristotle
– Teleology
– Causality
Book III
– The ‘Errors of Aristotle’
• The Claims of Reason and Faith
• What do you know about God?
– Being
– Attributes
83. Aquinas, God, and Ontology
• Five Ways of proving God’s Existence
• Descartes, Leibniz and Kant
• Causality, Being, Time, Space
“Not how the world is, is the mystical, but that it
is” (Ludwig Wittgenstein)
84. Five Ways of proving God
• Motion: Things move and change. Things are put into motion by
something else. There cannot be an infinite regress, therefore there must
have been an initial unmoved mover. This we call God.
• Causation: All things have an immediate or efficient cause. The efficient
causes cannot go back infinitely, so there must be a first, uncaused cause.
This we call God.
• Contingency: It is not necessary for any particular thing to exist, they are,
rather, contingent things. All possible things at one point did not exist. If
all things are merely contingent, then at one time things did not exist.
There must be a necessary essence that caused all contingent things to
be. This we call God.
• Goodness: Things have degrees of perfection—larger or smaller, heavier
or lighter, warmer or colder. Degrees imply the existence of a maximum
of perfection. This maximum perfection we call God.
• The Way of Design: Things in this world are ordered to particular ends.
Even unintelligent things are predisposed to this and not that. This order
inherent in even inanimate things necessitates an intelligence to direct it.
This intelligence we call God.
85. Politics and Religion
in the Middle Ages
• From zoon politikon to homo credens
• This world and the next world (St.Augustine
354-430: City of God)
• Religion and Politics, Pope and Emperor, The
Holy Roman Empire, Investiture and
Coronation
• Feudalism
87. Analogies and Hierarchies
• God is to the Universe what the King is to
Society is what the Head of Household is to
the Household
• Harmony, Hierarchy and Teleology
88. Law and Politics
• Law is “an ordinance of reason for the
common good”
• Eternal Law, Natural Law, Human Law, Divine
Law
• Disobedience, Resistance, Legitimacy and
Legality
89. What is Natural Law
• Underlying principles of moral practice
• One more Analogy: The Principle of Non-Contradiction and
the Law of Nature
• “Good should be pursued and done and evil avoided”
• “Since good has the character of an end and evil the contrary
character, all those things to which a man has a natural
inclination reason naturally grasps as goods, and
consequently as things to be pursued…”
• Self-Preservation, Community, Contemplation
91. • The major figures in philosophy of mind,
epistemology, and metaphysics during the
17th and 18th centuries are roughly divided
into 2 main groups. The "Rationalists," mostly
in France and Germany, argued all knowledge
must begin from certain "innate ideas" in the
mind.
92. Modern Philosophers
• Rationalists
– Descartes
– Kant
– Leibniz
• Empiricists
– Machiavelli
– Locke
– Hobbes
– Bacon
– Marx
Epistemology - the theory of knowledge (what and how we
know)
93. • Machiavelli – 1469-
1527 – control populace
– politics, government -
two books, The Prince is
still used today in
politics (Stalin really
liked The Prince), ends
justify the means, fear
tactic in leadership
(better feared than
loved)
94. Epistemology
Epistemology is one of the core areas of philosophy. It is
concerned with the nature, sources and limits of
knowledge. Epistemology has been primarily concerned
with propositional knowledge, that is, knowledge that
such-and-such is true, rather than other forms of
knowledge, for example, knowledge how to such-and-such.
There is a vast array of views about propositional
knowledge, but one virtually universal presupposition is
that knowledge is true belief, but not mere true belief. For
example, lucky guesses or true beliefs resulting from
wishful thinking are not knowledge. Thus, a central
question in epistemology is: How do we know what we
know is true, and what is the difference(s) between
knowledge, belief and truth?
100. Rene Descartes
• Rationalist fixated on figuring out how to
know truth.
• Through deconstruction/reduction, he
eliminates everything to get to a CRITERION
OF TRUTH – a kernel of absolutely true
knowledge from which an entire world can be
constructed
101. Phases
• Doubt EVERYTHING that can be doubted
• Find the criterion of truth
• Expand from that point to find what is
knowable and true
• This is a rational exercise – the senses cannot
be trusted.
103. • Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the
origin of modern conceptions of identity and
the self
• His work had a great impact upon the
development of epistemology and political
philosophy.
• knowledge is determined only by experience
derived from sense perception.
105. · Marx has been called "the first great user of
Critical Method critical in social sciences."
· He criticized speculative philosophy, equating
metaphysics with ideology.
· By using the above approach, Marx attempted to
separate key findings from ideological bias and it
set him apart from many contemporary
philosophers.
106. · Believes that humans are not trapped in a
predetermined state of being.
· It is humans who made history, therefore they
can change it.
· Viewed Capitalism as a step toward
progressive society.
107. Realism v. Idealism: Since society can decide for itself,
there are different interpretations
Realism v. Nominalism : The Tangible world and
capitalism.
-Ideas exist in tangible world.
-Connects abstract to real.
Idealist v. Materialist:
-Not about spirituality
- Human struggle and capital.
112. Immanuel Kant
• Synthesized rationalism and empiricism
– Said both are partly right and partly wrong, took the
“right” parts from each
• All knowledge comes from experience, but reason
determines how we perceive reality.
• We need to keep in mind HUMAN PERCEPTION - a
“think in itself” vs. a “thing for us”
• We cannot evade our humanistic filter
113. • Disagrees with Hume on causation and says
that is the rational structure of the mind at
work. We apply meaning.
• Kant’s ETHICS - based on the “Categorical
Imperative”
– ACT AS IF THE MAXIM OF YOUR ACTION,
THROUGH YOUR WILL, WOULD BECOME THE LAW
OF NATURE”
114. • Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein (26 April
1889 – 29 April 1951)
115. Philosophical Investigations
• The later Wittgenstein made an about face (which,
however, does have many roots in the Tractatus): he
abandoned the idea that logic had any natural claim to
Truth, and (therefore) meaning
• Instead, he argued that logic (and meaning) was rooted
in social agreement, defined by grammars arising from
forms of life
“Philosophical Investigations is a vote for sanity over
system.”
Jan Zwicky / Lyric Philosophy
116. • 17th to 18th century
• Moving from religion to fact/science
• Age of reason
• Not a single movement or thought, but rather a set
of values
• Figure out a reason why we are here without using
religion as an answer – thinking outside the box
• The way people thought was changing
• Politics and how people were governed
117. A complex philosophy
emphasizing the absurdity
of reality and the human
responsibility to make
choices and accept
consequences!
ANDREW WYETH
Christina’s World (1948)
118. It was during the
Second World War,
when Europe found
itself in a crisis faced
with death and
destruction, that the
existential movement
began to flourish,
popularized in France in
the 1940s…
GEORGIO DE CHIRICO
Love Song
119. BBiigg IIddeeaass ooff EExxiisstteennttiiaalliissmm
MARK ROTHKO
Untitled (1968)
Despite encompassing a huge
range of philosophical, religious,
and political ideologies, the
underlying concepts of
existentialism are simple…
120. Cogito ergo sum.
EExxiisstteennccee PPrreecceeddeess
EEsssseennccee
Existentialism is the title of the set of philosophical ideals that
emphasize the existence of the human being, the lack of meaning
and purpose in life, and the solitude of human existence… “Existence
precedes essence” implies that the human being has no essence (no
essential self).
121. AAbbssuurrddiissmm
• The belief nothing can explain or
rationalize human existence.
• There is no answer to “Why am I?”
• Humans exist in a meaningless,
irrational universe and any search
for order will bring them into direct
conflict with this universe.
122. “You will never be happy
if you continue to search
for what happiness
consists of. You will
never live if you are
looking for the meaning of
life.”
“It was previously a question of finding out
whether or not life had to have a meaning
to be lived. It now becomes clear, on the
contrary, that it will be lived all the better if
it has no meaning.”
123. CChhooiiccee aanndd CCoommmmiittmmeenntt
• Humans have freedom to choose
• Each individual makes choices that
create his or her own nature
• Because we choose, we must accept
risk and responsibility for wherever
our commitments take us
• “A human being is absolutely free and absolutely responsible.
Anguish is the result.” –Jean-Paul Sartre
125. DDrreeaadd aanndd AAnnxxiieettyy
• Dread is a feeling of general
apprehension. Kierkegaard interpreted
it as God’s way of calling each
individual to make a commitment to a
personally valid way of life.
• Anxiety stems from our understanding
and recognition of the total freedom of
choice that confronts us every moment,
and the individual’s confrontation with
nothingness.
127. NNootthhiinnggnneessss aanndd DDeeaatthh
• Death hangs over all of us. Our
awareness of it can bring freedom or
anguish.
• I am my own existence. Nothing
structures my world.
• “Nothingness is our inherent lack of self. We are in constant
pursuit of a self. Nothingness is the creative well-spring from
which all human possibilities can be realized.” –Jean-Paul Sartre
128. All existentialists are concerned with the study of being or ontology.
TO REVIEW: An existentialist believes that a person’s life is nothing but
the sum of the life he has shaped for himself. At every moment it is
always his own free will choosing how to act. He is responsible for his
actions, which limit future actions. Thus, he must create a morality in
the absence of any known predetermined absolute values. God
does not figure into the equation, because even if God does exist, He
does not reveal to men the meaning of their lives. Honesty with oneself
is the most important value. Every decision must be weighed in light of
all the consequences of that action…
Life is absurd, but we engage it!
130. HHuummaann SSuubbjjeeccttiivviittyy
“I will be what I choose to
be…”
It is impossible to transcend
human subjectivity.
“There are no true
connections between
people…”
My emotions are yet another
choice I make. I am
responsible for them.
Edward Hopper “New York Movie” (1939)
131. Subjectivity vs. Objectivity
• In reason, subjectivity refers to the property of
perceptions, arguments, and language as being
based in a subject's point of view, and hence
influenced in accordance with a particular bias.
• As I Lay Dying presents a world that is completely
subjective (if you rule out Faulkner ordering the
chapters and choosing the speakers)
132. Objectivity
• Subjectivity’s opposite property is objectivity,
which refers to such as based in a separate,
distant, and unbiased point of view, such that
concepts discussed are treated as objects.
• A scientist and a spiritual man have one thing
in common– each seeks to understand an
objective truth in the world.
133. Human existence cannot be captured by reason or
objectivity –– it must include passion, emotion and
the subjective…
Each of us is responsible
for everything and to every
human being.
GEORGIA O’KEEFFE
Sky Above White Clouds I (1962)
–Simone de Beauvoir
135. Bad Faith
• when individuals negate their true nature in an
attempt to become a self they are not.
• The classic example is Sartre's waiter who is always
just slightly too friendly, too helpful, too willing to
play the part of a waiter rather than being the less
friendly, helpful and waiter-like self he would be if he
were not assuming the identity of "waiter."
• In assuming the role of "waiter," Sartre's character has
negated himself by denying his authentic ego with all its
characteristics not becoming of a waiter.
136. Bad Faith …
• In social situations we
play a part that is not
ourselves. If we
passively become that
part, we are thereby
avoiding the important
decisions and choices
by which personality
should be formed
137. • One of the most important implications of bad faith
is the abolition of traditional ethics and morality.
• Because being a moral person requires one to deny
authentic impulses and change one's actions based
on the will of a person other than oneself, being a
moral person is one of the most severe forms of
bad faith.
138. SSoommee FFaammoouuss
EExxiisstteennttiiaalliissttss
• Søren Kierkegaard
(1813-1855)
• Friedrich Nietzsche
(1844-1900)
• Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-
1980)
• Albert Camus (1913-1960)
“A woman is not born…she is
created.”
de Beauvoir’s most famous text
is The Second Sex (1949),
which some claim is the basis
for current gender studies…
139. Albert Camus dissociated himself from the
existentialists but acknowledged man’s lonely
condition in the universe. His “man of the
absurd” (or absurd hero) rejects despair and
commits himself to the anguish and
responsibility of living as best he can.
Basically, man creates himself through the choices he makes. There are no
guides for these choices, but he has to make them anyway, which renders
life absurd…
140. AAlliieennaattiioonn oorr
EEssttrraannggeemmeenntt
• From all other
humans
• From human
institutions
• From the past
• From the future
• We only exist right
now, right here…
EDGAR DEGAS
“L’absinthe” (1876)
141. "Just What is it that makes today's home so different, so appealing?" (1956) -
Richard Hamilton
143. Postmodernism: Significant Events
•August 6, 1945 - atomic explosion over
Hiroshima, Japan The conclusion of World War
II
•The Korean War (Conflict?)
• The Cold War of the 1950s
• McCarthyism and the House Un-American
Activities Committee
• The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962
• The assassination of President Kennedy, Nov.
1962 Identity Movements of the 1960s:
Feminism, Civil Rights/Black Power
• The assassinations, in 1968, of Martin Luther
King, Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy
144. Postmodernism: Significant Events (con’t)
• The Vietnam War (Conflict?)
• The killing of four students by the National
Guard at Kent State Univ., 1970
• The resignation of President Nixon in 1974
•The AIDS epidemic
•Identity Movements: Gay, Lesbian, Queer
movements, Postcolonial movements and
minority literature.
•The rise of Theory
•Culture Wars: debates over canonical
inclusion and “great books”
145. Postmodernism Samples (from
Jameson)
John Ashbery -- David Antin
Pop Buildings
Pop Art, Conceptual Art,
Photorealism
John Cage, Philip Glass, the
Clash, Talking Heads, Gang of
Four
Vanguard film: Godard, etc. to
Hollywood “nostalgia film”
Fiction: Burroughs, Pychnon,
DeLillo, French new novel
Other samples?
146.
147. Still Life with a Bottle of Rum, Summer 1911
Pablo Picasso (Spanish, 1881–1973)
Oil on canvas; 24 1/8 x 19 7/8 in. (61.3 x 50.5 cm)
152. Recurrent Ideas in Theory
(from: Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An
Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory.
Second Edition. Manchester, 2002)
1. Anti-essentialism—many of the notions
previously regarded as universal and fixed
(gender identity, individual selfhood) are actually
fluid and unstable. These are socially constructed
or contingent categories rather than absolute or
essential ones.
2. All thinking and investigation is affected by prior
ideological commitments. There is no
disinterested enquiry.
3. “Language itself conditions, limits, and
predetermines what we see. Language doesn’t
record reality but constructs it. Meaning in texts
is jointly constructed by the reader and writer.
4. “Theorists distrust all totalizing notions” (great
books, human nature)
153. Barry sums these ideas up in 5 key
points:
politics is pervasive
language is constituative
Truth is provisional
Meaning is contingent
Human nature is a myth.
160. Metafiction
“Metafiction is a term given to fictional writing
which self-consciously and systematically draws
attention to its status as an artifact in order to
pose questions about the relationship between
fiction and reality. In providing a critique of
their own methods of construction, such writings
not only examine the fundamental structures of
narrative fiction, they also explore the possible
fictionality of the world outside the literary
fictional text.”
(Patricia Waugh, courtesy of Patrick)
161. David Lodge: 4 Techniques Typical of PM Fiction
• Permutation: incorporating alternative narrative
lines in the same text
• Discontinuity: disrupting the continuity, unity,
“reality” of the text (by unpredictable swerves of
tone, metafictional asides to the reader, blank
spaces in the text, etc).
• Randomness: discontinuity produced by composing
accord to the logic of the absurd
• Excess: as a method of departing from or testing the
bounds of “reality”
162. “The Babysitter” fragments
“a scream” a fight “Stop it!”
“Decides to take a quick bath” a golf club
a pair of underpants “are you being a good girl?”
“Dolly!” “Where’s Harry?” “peeping in”
“Hey! What’s going on here?” “Harry?”
“I’m just wrapped in a towel”
“I’ll spank!” “Something about a babysitter…”
a ringing telephone
“Maybe you better get in the tub too”
“They’re all dead”
166. Hinduism
• The term refers to the collect faiths that
originated in India.
• Hinduism does not have a clear origin.
• There is not one “holy book” or text.
• There is not a single founder.
167.
168. Indian Civilization
• The Indian Subcontinent is home to one of the oldest
civilizations in the world
• A wide diversity of religions exists on the Indian
Subcontinent (modern Pakistan, India, Bangladesh,
Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka)
• Four major religious traditions have emerged from
this area:
– Hinduism
– Jainism
– Buddhism
– Sikhism
169. Hinduism
Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism are relatively
unified religious traditions
Hinduism, by contrast, refers to a wide variety
of religious traditions, philosophies, and folk
practices, which may be only marginally
related to each other
The term “Hinduism” was introduced by
Europeans in the 18th century to describe
followers of various Indian religions
170. History of Hinduism
c. 8000-6000 BCE: the Vedas are “heard,” according to
tradition
c. 2500-1500 BCE: Indus Valley civilization flourishes in
cities such as Mohenjo-daro and Harappa (modern-day
Pakistan)
c. 900-700 BCE: Brahmanas written
c. 600-100 BCE: Upanishads written
c. 400 BCE – 200 CE: Ramayana written
c. 400 BCE – 400 CE: Mahabharata written
171. History of Hinduism
711 CE – Muslim invasions of India begin
1556-1707 – Mughal Empire
1857-1947 – British Raj
1947 – Independence, partition of India and
Pakistan
1948 – Assassination of Mohandas Gandhi
172. Shaivism
• Shiva-
• The supreme being
and creator of the
universe.
• Parvati, Sakti- wife
• Ganesha-child
• Nandi- Bull
173. Saktism
• Sakti- wife of Siva, the
female part of the
universe.
• Destroyer or
destructive force in this
realm.
174. Vaisnavism
• Vishnu- Is a personal
god.
• Protector in this
realm
The Buddha was an
incarnation of the
God Vishnu
according to Hindus.
175. The Vedas
The sacred texts of Hinduism are called Shruti, meaning
“heard”
The Vedas are a collection of ancient religious hymns
Written in Sanskrit, an ancient Indian language
The earliest Vedas are among the oldest surviving religious
texts in the world
According to Hindu tradition, the Vedas were not created by
humans, but have existed eternally and were “heard” by
ancient sages called rishis, and compiled by Vyasa, an
incarnation of the god Vishnu
Contemporary scholars believe the Vedas were first written
in the first millennium BCE, but were passed on orally prior
to being written
176. The Vedas
There are four Vedas:
The Rig Veda: a book of sacred hymns
The Yajur Veda: a book of knowledge and
melodies for the hymns
The Sama Veda: descriptions of the materials for
sacrifice
The Atharva Veda: contains magic spells and
other folk knowledge
177. Don’t Get Confused!
• The study of Hinduism requires learning a
number of Sanskrit terms, some of which are
similar but have distinct meanings.
– Brahman = the Infinite
– Brahmanas = Shruti texts on sacrifice
– Brahma = a creator god
– Brahmin = a priestly-caste Hindu
178. Brahman and Atman
• The Atman is the inner essence of the human
being – the soul
– The Atman is the same as Brahman – a commonly-used
analogy is the relationship between a drop of
water and the ocean
– The goal of some schools of Hinduism is for
practitioners to realize that their individual
consciousness is nothing but Brahman and to
reunite with the Infinite
179. Other Concepts
Reincarnation: the belief that the atman migrates after death
to a new body (human or other)
Karma: the law of cause and effect; good deeds lead to good
results, and evil deeds lead to evil results.
This may follow the atman through death and affect reincarnation
Theistic schools may view karma as being divine judgement
Samsara: the cycle of birth, death, and reincarnation
Moksha: enlightenment; freedom from Samsara. One
realizes the unity of atman and Brahman and is freed from
the cycle of samsara, existing in a state of blissful union with
Brahman
180. Common Themes in Hinduism
• Most forms of Hinduism have the following in
common:
– Connection to Truth through the Vedas and other
scriptures, and also through meditation and
mystical experiences
• Acceptance of the Vedas is the primary factor that
distinguishes Hinduism from Buddhism and Jainism
– Importance of ethics (karma)
– Seeking of personal enlightenment through
realization of the true nature of the Self
181. Philosophical Schools
Indian civilization has a long and rich philosophical
tradition, much of which is closely related to
religious belief
Samkhya: An ancient philosophical school based on
dualism, which is the belief in two separate states of
reality: the material world (Prakriti) and the eternal
Self or cosmic consciousness (Purusha)
Advaita Vedanta: a monistic philosophy. Holds that
everything is one (Brahman), and all differentiation
in the world is illusion (maya)
182. Yoga
• Yoga (Sanskrit meaning “to yoke,” a metaphor for “union”)
refers to spiritual disciplines for attaining a state of samadhi:
higher awareness, or union with the true Self
• Systematized in the Yoga Sutras, developed by the sage
Patanjali in the 3rd century BCE
• Different types of yoga are appropriate for different types of
people
– Raja yoga: meditation
• Includes chanting of mantras, breath control, channeling of prana energy,
and moral living
– Jnana yoga: rational questioning
– Karma yoga: disinterested good deeds
– Bhakti yoga: loving devotion to a personal deity
183. WWhhaatt aabboouutt tthhiiss kkiinndd
??ooff yyooggaa
• The form of yoga most commonly practiced in the
West derives from Hatha Yoga, a later form of yoga
developed by Yogi Swatmarama in the 15th century
CE
185. Shaivism
• Shaivites are worshippers of
Shiva
• Shiva represents asceticism
and the union of the
masculine and the feminine
• Shiva is sometimes depicted
with a consort, either Parvati
or Kali
186. The popular deity Ganesha, the remover of obstacles, is
the son of Shiva and Parvati
187. Vaishnavites
• Vaishnavites are worshippers
of Vishnu
• Vishnu is a merciful deity who
appears in many incarnations
(avatara)
• One popular avatar of Vishnu
is Krishna
• Another is the hero Rama
188. The Epics
• In Hindu mythology, Vishnu
incarnates as an avatar at
critical times in history to
restore the moral order
(dharma)
• Two great epic poems, the
Ramayana and the
Mahabharata, tell of
Vishnu’s intervention in the
world and conquest of evil
forces
189. The Ramayana
• The Ramayana, probably composed between 400 BCE and
200 CE, tells the story of the mythical prince Rama, identified
as an avatar of Vishnu
• The central theme of the Ramayana is dharma, the virtuous
life, as exemplified in proper human relationships
• Rama is banished from his kingdom by his stepmother. He
goes willingly to live in the forest for fourteen years,
accompanied by his wife, Sita
• Sita is abducted by the demon king Ravana
• Rama, his brother Lakshman, and the monkey king Hanuman
fight a war against Ravana’s armies to retrieve Sita
190. The Mahabharata
The Mahabharata is a famous epic poem in Sanskrit, was
probably composed between 400 BCE and 400 CE
It tells the story of an ancient dynastic struggle
One of the best-known parts of the Mahabharata is the
Bhagavad-Gita, or “Song of the Supreme Being”
In the Bhagavad-Gita, the prince Arjuna is forced to go to
battle against his friends and loved ones
Distraught, he turns to his charioteer for advice
His charioteer, who is Krishna, gives Arjuna instruction on
self-transcendence, dharma, and philosophy, which explain
in detail many core beliefs in the Hindu tradition
191. “Do your duty to the best of
your ability, O Arjuna, with
your mind attached to the
Lord, abandoning worry and
selfish attachment to the
results, and remaining calm
in both success and failure.
The selfless service is a
yogic practice that brings
peace and equanimity of
mind.”
- Bhagavad-Gita 2.48
192. Puranas
• The Puranas are Sanskrit texts that narrate myths
based on the Upanishads
• Eighteen Puranas in total – six about Brahma, six
about Vishnu, six about Shiva
• Best known is Bhagavata Purana, which tells stories
of Krishna, avatar of Vishnu
– Strong emphasis on practice of bhakti – loving devotion to
Krishna
– Depicts Krishna as a mischievous child
– Also depicts Krishna as a young man dancing with gopis
(young, female cow-herders)
193.
194. Ritual Life
• Many rituals make up Hindu religious life
• Puja is Hindu worship
– Sometimes takes place at temples; may be
connected by specialists such as brahmin priests
– May also take place at home shrines
• Statues of deities are often the focal point of
ritual; these are treated as if they were the
actual deity
195. Caste
Over the course of history, Hindu society came to be divided
into four castes, or social classes:
Brahmins: priests, the highest caste
Kshatriyas: warriors and kings
Vaishyas: merchants
Shudras: manual labourers
Some people do not fall into any caste; these are called
dalits, or untouchables
Dalits have traditionally been tasked with work such as cleaning
streets and working with human and animal corpses and waste
Caste-based discrimination is now illegal in India, and
affirmative-action policies aim to improve standards of living
in lower castes, but inequalities persist
196. Four Goals of Life
• Hinduism defines for objectives, or “ends,” of
the good life:
– Dharma: carrying out duties and responsibilities
– Artha: pursuit of worldly success and wealth
– Kama: love, sensual pleasure, and art
– Moksha: enlightenment
• Different goals are considered appropriate for
different people
197. The Life Cycle
• The journey towards enlightenment is thought to
take many lifetimes
• Being born as a human, especially an upper-caste
male, is thought to be a unique opportunity for
spiritual development
• Brahmin males are ideally expected to pass through
four stages of life:
– Student
– Householder
– Spiritual seeker
– Ascetic
198. Women in Hinduism
The place of women in Hinduism has a complex history
Hindu tradition prescribes clear social roles for all members
of society, including women
These social roles often involve marriage and family life
While domestic roles are honoured in Hindu tradition, in practice they
often lead to limited social status for women
Expectations of a large dowry being given to the husband’s family at
marriage have led to women being seen as an economic burden in
some families
Arranged marriages are a Hindu tradition that is sometimes still
practiced today
Women are not traditionally expected to pursue spiritual
enlightenment, although many women become ascetics
200. Buddhism
A philosophical tradition, founded by Gautama
Siddhartha Buddha in the fifth century b.c., that
took on various forms as a religion and spread
throughout Asia; It is a branch of Hinduism
Buddhism attempts to help the individual conquer
the suffering and mutability of human existence
through the elimination of desire and ego and
attainment of the state of nirvana.
201. Eightfold Path
• The way or practice recommended in
Buddhism that includes:
• Right View,
• Right Aim,
• Right Speech,
• Right Action,
• Right Living,
• Right Effort,
• Right Mindfulness,
• Right Contemplation.
202. Four Noble Truths
• Buddha's answer to the central problem of life
(1) There is suffering; (2) suffering has specific
and identifiable causes; (3) suffering can be
ended; (4) the way to end suffering is through
enlightened living, as expressed in the
Eightfold Path.
203. Different planes of reality
• For some Buddist, this plane of existence is
not the only one.
• You can be reincarnated as a higher or lower
being, depending upon your karma at death.
204. Taoism
• Lao Tzu
• Chuang Tzu
• Sun Tzu
• Lieh Tzu
• Yin and Yang
206. Why did these philosophies develop?
• War and social changes
were disrupting everyday
life
• Government lacked
control
• These philosophies helped
guide people and the
government to a better
life
207. Confucius
K’ung fu-tzu or Kongfuzi
• 551-479 bce
• Itinerant teacher
• Sayings collected in The
Analects
208. Confucianism
• Founder: Confucius
• Sacred Test: Analects – collection of Confucius’
sayings
• Major Teachings:
• 3 Levels
– Status/Position
– Age
– Gender
• 5 Relationships to Develop
• Ruler to Subject
• Parent to Child (Filial Piety)
• Husband to Wife
• Older Brother to Younger Brother
• Friend to Friend (Golden Rule)
– Importance of Education
– Importance of Morals and Values
209. The ancient
State of Lu
That’s where Confucius
was born & spent most
of his life.
210. Confucian goal
• Unconditional moral obligation to work for:
– Universal human well-being
– Order & harmony
– peace & happiness in this life here on earth
• Good ruler
– Morally good
– Reasonable
– Moderate – not extreme
– Kind and helpful
• Implications for Government
– Best rulers are wise
– Lead by example
– Developed & used civil service system
• Exams and training for gov’t jobs
212. Confucian Values
Li: Politeness
4 basic rules of human conduct:
○ Courtesy
○ Politeness
○ Good manners
○ Respect
Jen (Ren): Respect
Golden Rule:
○ Do not do to others what you do not want done to you.”
Te: Moral action
Strong leaders guide by example
Wen: Arts of peace:
Music, poetry, art
○ harmony, order, excellence, beauty.
213. Daoism / Taoism
• Founder – Laozi (Lao-Tze)
• Sacred Text –Tao-te-Ching
– Lao-Tze - The Book of the Way
• Major Teachings
– Live in harmony with nature
– Be like water:
• Water goes with the ‘flow’
• but is unstoppable
• Implications for Government
– Government unnatural
• Tries to change too much
• Usually makes things worse
214. Daoism / Taoism
• Tao: ultimate reality behind existence
• Man must conform to nature
– But not to society
• Confucian & Legalist social, economic, and
political thinking:
– Masculine, hard, managing, aggressive, rational,
and commanding
• Daoists are different.
– balancing masculine with feminine
– Be yielding, permissive, withdrawing, mystical, and
receptive
215. Yin and Yang
• Negative and positive principles of the
universe.
• One cannot exist without the other
• Each is incorporated into the other
• Not Opposites, but Complements
– Complete each other
216. Yin & Yang
female
dark
cool
moist
passive
negative
evil
Heaven
& Sun
male
bright
hot
dry
active
positive
Earth good
&
Moon
217. Three Jewels of Taosim
• Compassion - leads to courage
• Moderation - leads to generosity
• Humility - leads to leadership
219. Chuang Chou
(Chuang Tzu or
ZhuangZi )
The Way has nothing to
do with the “rights”
and “wrongs”
associated with
traditions such as
Confucianism.
220. "Once I, Chuang Tzu, dreamed that I was a butterfly.
Suddenly I awoke, and there I was, visibly Tzu. I do
not know whether it was Tzu dreaming that he was a
butterfly or the butterfly dreaming it was Tzu,
Between Tzu and the butterfly there must be some
distinction. [But one may be the other.] This is called
the transformation of things."
221. Legalism • Hanfiezi c. 250 bce
• Major Teachings
– People are naturally selfish and
corrupt so they need to be controlled
– Intellectualism and literacy are
discouraged
– Law is the supreme authority and
replaces morality
– The ruler must rule with a strong,
punishing hand.
– War is the means of strengthening
a ruler’s power.
• Implications for Government
– Many rules
– Harsh punishments
– Strong military
• Important during Q’in & Sui dynasties
222. Summary of the 3 Chinese
Philosophies
Confucianism --> Moral order in society.
Daoism --> Freedom for individuals and
less govt. to avoid uniformity and
conformity.
Legalism --> Rule by harsh law & order.
Editor's Notes
During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period, many new ideas arose among warring regional rulers who competed in building strong and loyal armies and in increasing economic production to guarantee a wider base for tax collection. In order to pursue their goals, the rulers sought skilled, literate officials and teachers. Because so many different philosophies developed during this time, this era is also referred to the Hundred Schools of Thought.
The school of thought that had the greatest impact on Chinese life was the Confucian school in the West. Confucius looked to the early days of Zhou rule for an ideal social and political order. He based his teachings on this past system, and believed that the only way such a system could be emulated would be if everyone let "the ruler be a ruler and subject be a subject." However, though Heaven elected certain men to be rulers, it was also believed that if he was selfish and cruel and abuses his people, Heaven would cease to protect him or sanction his rule, and he will fail. This concept was known as the Mandate of Heaven. In fact, the Zhou used this concept to justify their overthrowning of the Shang.
Words are not just wind. Words have something to say. But if what they have to say is not fixed, then do they really say something? Or do they say nothing? People suppose that words are different from the peeps of baby birds, but is there any difference, or isn’t there? What does the Way rely upon, that we have true and false? What do words rely upon, that we have right and wrong? How can the Way go away and not exist? How can words exist and not be acceptable? When the Way relies on little accomplishments and words rely on vain show, then we have the rights and wrongs of the Confucians and the Mo-ists. What one calls right the other calls wrong; what one calls wrong the other calls right. But if we want to right their wrongs and wrong their rights, then the best thing to use is clarity. Everything has its “that,” everything has its “this.” From the point of view of “that” you cannot see it, but through understanding you can know it. So I say, “that” comes out of “this” and “this” depends on “that”—which is to say that “this” and “that” give birth to each other. But where there is birth there must be death; where there is death there must be birth. Where there is acceptability there must be unacceptability; where there is unacceptability there must be acceptability. Where there is recognition of right there must be recognition of wrong; where there is recognition of wrong there must be recognition of right. Therefore the sage does not proceed in such a way, but illuminates all in the light of Heaven. He too recognizes a “this,” but a “this” which is also “that,” a “that” which is also “this.” His “that” has both a right and a wrong in it; his “this” too has both a right and a wrong in it. So, in fact, does he still have a “this” and “that”? Or does he in fact no longer have a “this” and “that”? A state in which “this” and “that” no longer find their opposites is called the hinge of the Way. When the hinge is fitted into the socket, it can respond endlessly. Its right then is a single endlessness and its wrong too is a single endlessness. So, I say, the best thing to use is clarity. [Chuang Tzu, 34-35]
