SUPERGENE ENRICHMENT; Definition; Zones; Morphology of Zoning; Oxidized zone ; Supergene zone ; Gossans and Cappings; Chemical Changes Involved; Electrowinning; Formation of Copper Oxides
1. Topic 9: Supergene Enrichment
Hassan Z. Harraz
hharraz2006@yahoo.com
2012- 2013
22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
1
2. 22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
2
Outline of Topic 9:
We will explore all of the above in Topic 9.
Definition
Weathering Processes and Supergene ore Deposits
Conditions that Influence Supergene Enrichment
Ideal Starting Material
Zones:
Morphology of Zoning
Gossans and Cappings
Oxidation and Solution in Zone of Oxidation
Effects of Oxidation on Mineral Deposits
Chemical Changes Involved
Electrowinning
Why do we need pyrite?
Structural Control
Formation of Copper Oxides
3. Definition
Secondary or supergene enrichment where leaching of materials occurs
and precipitation at depth produces higher concentrations.
Kinds from:
Concentrating minerals by chemical weathering processes.
Residual Mineral Deposits
An existing mineral deposit can be turned in to a more highly
concentrated mineral deposit by weathering in a process.
Remarkable special case of weathering
Definition from Evans, 1993: “leaching of valuable elements from the
upper parts of mineral deposits and their precipitation at depth to
produce higher concentrations.”
Definition from Guilbert and Park, 1985: Supergene enrichment occurs
when oxidizing acids dissolve metal ions from the “protore” and re-
deposits it in more reducing, basic areas, i.e. below the water table. This
results in an oxidized zone on top (gossan), a supergene zone beneath and
the hypogene (protore) beneath that.
22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
3
4. Exploring Sulfide Ore Deposits - Gossan
22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
4
5. Weathering processes and Supergene ore Deposits
Sulfide ore bodies have been subjected to weathering at or near the
surface of the Earth after eons of erosion removed overlying rocks.
Sulfide minerals are not stable at the earth’s surface and
breakdown during weathering liberating metallic ions (e.g., Cu2+,
Pb2+, Zn2+, Ag2+).
The surface waters oxidize many ore minerals and yield solvents that
dissolve other minerals.
An ore deposit thus becomes oxidised and generally leached of many of its
valuable materials down to the groundwater table, or to a depth where
oxidation cannot take place.
These ions may precipitate as oxides, carbonates and sulfates
above the water table to form the secondary copper, lead, zinc and
silver deposits.
Where copper ions reach the water table and react with primary
sulphides, supergene copper deposits form that are dominated by
copper sulphides.
1) Oxidation and reduction enrichment go hand in hand.
2) Without oxidation there can be no supply of solvents from which minerals
may later be precipitated in the zones of oxidation or of supergene sulfides.
3) The process resolves itself into three stages:
(i) Oxidation and solution in the zone of oxidation,
(ii) Deposition in the zone of oxidation, and
(iii) Supergene sulfide deposition.
Each is considered separately
22 November 2015 Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
5
4) Ideal starting material
For this to happen, the rock (starting material)
needs to be:
Porous and permeable.
Contains abundant pyrite.
Contains acid soluble ore-metal-minerals.
Underlain by precipitative environment.
Can apply to many transition metals but Cu is the
outstanding example.
Acidic oxidizing solutions will dissolve many minerals.
Basic reducing conditions at or below groundwater
table will precipitate.
Conditions that influence supergene enrichment
Active chemical weathering with ground level lowered by
erosion.
Weathering under acidic (carbonated water) and
oxidizing conditions.
Permeability and Porous
Composition of the ore from the standpoint of chemistry
of the solution, chemical environment;
Contains abundant pyrite.
Contains acid soluble ore-metal-minerals.
Time.
Deep water table imposing reducing conditions.
Latitude and altitude, and depth of water level
Climate and physiographic development
Restricted to non-glacial terranes.
6. Zones:
22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
6
Ideally, them, there are three fundamental zones:
1)Oxidized zone leached
2) Supergene zone enriched
3) Hypogene zone {or Protore (parent)}
+ Gossans and Cappings
7. Morphology of Zoning
Zone of oxidation :
The oxidized part .
The region above the water-table in an ore deposit is known as the oxidised zone as it is the zone of oxidation of the primary ore minerals.
The effects of oxidation may extend far below the zone of oxidation (The zone of oxidized ore is generally above the water table).
As the cold, dilute, leaching solutions trickle downward they may lose a part or all of their metallic content within the zone of oxidation and
give rise to oxidized ore deposits.
This oxidised zone is primarily composed of mixtures of iron oxides/hydroxides and quartz which we call gossan.
Most primary ore minerals (particularly the sulfide minerals) are only stable in anaerobic dry environments. With the rise and fall of the
water-table and downward percolating rainwater (containing dissolved oxygen), these minerals dissolve and new minerals (oxide zone
minerals) are precipitated in the gossan. With the dissolution of sulfide minerals, the water becomes acidic, further enhancing the
dissolution of the ore.
Most of the spectacular minerals we see from ore deposits are those formed in the oxidised zone. When the oxidised zone is well developed
and the secondary minerals sufficiently concentrated, it is a highly profitable zone to mine as the processing is much cheaper and easier
and the metals more concentrated. However, most oxidised zones have been mined in the past because they formed outcrops of easily
identifiable stained gossans
Zone of secondary or supergene sulfide enrichment:
Immediately below the oxidised zone is sometimes a zone known as the supergene zone where metals are deposited by fluids percolating
downwards from the oxidised zone and concentrating in a narrow band just below the water table.
The supergene zone is the richest part of an ore deposit but in many instances, is either only very thin or not developed at all.
The zone of supergene sulphides is in general below the water level deposits owe their economic success to this process.
Reducing zone.
If the down-trickling solutions penetrate the water table, their metallic content may be precipitated in the form of secondary sulfides to give
rise to a zone of secondary or supergene sulfide enrichment.
Best sulfide ores (Covellite and Chalcocite)
Primary or hypogene zone :
Reducing zone
The lower part of the deposit.
Protore (parent or original) part of the deposit.
Unaltered, primary, and disseminated sulfide minerals (pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, Bornite).
Note:
This zonal arrangement is characteristic of many mineral deposits that have undergone long-continued weathering.
In places the supergene sulfide zone may be absent, and in rare cases the oxidized zone is shallow or lacking, as in some glaciated areas or
regions undergoing rapid erosion.
22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
7
8. The most common minerals found in oxidised zones are:
Copper: malachite, azurite, chrysocolla
Gangue minerals: quartz (usually cryptocrystalline),
barite, calcite, aragonite
Iron: goethite, hematite
Lead: anglesite, cerussite
Manganese: pyrolusite, romanechite, rhodochrosite
Nickel: gaspeite, garnierite
Silver: native silver, chlorargyrite
Zinc: smithsonite
The most common minerals found in supergene
zones are:
Copper: chalcocite, bornite
Lead: supergene galena
Nickel: violarite
Silver: acanthite, native silver
Zinc: supergene sphalerite, wurtzite
22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
8
Morphology of Zoning
9. 22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
9
Replacement Textures
11. 22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
11
Effects of Oxidation on Mineral Deposits:
The minerals are altered and the structure is obliterated.
The metallic substances are leached or are altered to new compounds
that require metallurgical treatment for their extraction quite unlike
that employed for the unoxidized materials.
The texture and the type of deposit are obscured Compact ores are
made cavernous.
Water (H2O) with dissolved and entangled oxygen is the most
powerful oxidising reagent, but carbon dioxide (CO2) also plays an
important role (Locally chlorides, iodides, and bromides play a part).
These substances react with certain minerals to yield strong solvents
(such as ferric sulfate {Fe2(SO4)3} and sulfuric acid {H2SO4 }).
Sulfuric acid {H2SO4 }, in turn, reacting with sodium chloride (NaCl)
yields hydrochloric acid (HCl), which with iron yields the strongly
oxidizing ferric chloride.
Bacteria also promote oxidation; they oxidise ferrous iron at low pH to
ferric sulfate {Fe2(SO4)3 }.
13. CHEMICAL CHANGES INVOLVED
Most metallic mineral deposits contain pyrite. This mineral under attack readily yields
sulfur to form iron sulfate acid; pyrrhotite does the same. The following reactions are
suggested to indicate, without intermediate steps, their general trend:
(1) 2 FeS2 + 7O2+ 2H2O 2FeSO4 (aq) + 2H2SO4
(2) 2FeSO4 (aq) + H2SO4 + 0.5 O2 Fe2(SO4)3 (aq) + H2O
Reaction 2 passes through intermediate stages during which S, SO2, and FeSO4, may form.
The sulfur may oxidize to sulfuric acid. The ferrous sulfate readily oxidizes to ferric sulfate
and ferric hydroxide:
(3) 6FeSO4 + 3O + 3H2O 2Fe2(SO4)3 + 2Fe(OH)3
The ferric sulphate hydrolyses to ferric hydroxide and sulfuric acid:
(4) FeSO4 (aq) + 6H2O 2Fe(OH)3 + 3H2SO4
Ferric sulfate is also a strong oxidising agent and attacks pyrite and other sulfides to yield
more ferrous sulfate.
(5) FeSO4 (aq) + FeS2 3FeSO4 (aq) + 2S
Ferric sulfate, in addition, changes to various "basic sulfates.
22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
13
There are two main chemical changes within the zone of oxidation:
i) the oxidation, solution, and removal of the valuable minerals, and
ii) the transformation in situ of metallic minerals into oxidized compounds.
14. See figures:
Gossan
May be subdued expression of topography
Development related to phyllic altered zone
Shifting water tables
Hydrolysis, hydration accompany oxidation
22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
14
Cu2+
Cu2+
16. CHEMICAL CHANGES INVOLVED (Cont.)
22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment 16
The above reactions indicate the importance of pyrite, which
yields the chief solvents, ferric sulfate and sulfuric acid, and
also ferric hydroxide and basic ferric sulfates (Reactions 1 and 4).
Moreover, ferric sulfate is continuously being regenerated not
only from pyrite, but also from chalcopyrite and other sulfides.
The ferric hydroxide changes over to hematite and goethite
and forms the ever-present "limonite" that characterizes all
oxidised zones.
The basic ferric sulfates, of which there are several, may be
deposited as such, but; generally limonite is the end product.
17. Leaching reactions
2FeS2 + 7O2+ 2H2O 2FeSO4 (aq) + 2H2SO4
2FeSO4 (aq) + H2SO4 + 0.5 O2 Fe2(SO4)3 (aq) + H2O
2FeS2 + 7.5O2+ 4H2O Fe2O3 + 4H2SO4
2Fe+2 (aq) + ½ O2 + 2H2O Fe2O3 + 4H+
2CuFeS2 + 8.5O2 +2H2O Fe2O3 + 2Cu+2 + 4SO4
-2 + 4H+
Or
2CuFeS2 + 8Fe2(SO4)3 + 8H2O CuSO4 + 17FeSO4 + 8H2SO4
During the precipitation phase, the pyrite is again important,
because Cu replaces Fe.
22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
17
In general:
5FeS2 + 14Cu +2 + 14SO4
-2 + 12H2O 7Cu2S + 5Fe+2 + 24H+ + 17SO4
-2
18. CHEMICAL CHANGES INVOLVED (cont.)
The part played by ferric sulfate as a solvent may be seen in the following equations (Although the
end products are obtained, it is not established in all cases that the following reactions are those that
actually take place):
(6) Pyrite : FeS2 + Fe(SO4)3 3FeSO4 + 2S
(7) Chalcopyrite: CuFeS2 + 2Fe2(SO4)3 CuSO4 + 5FeSO4 + 2S
(8) Chalcocite: Cu2S + Fe2(SO4)3 CuSO4 + 2FeSO4 + CuS
(9) Covellite: CuS + Fe2(SO4)3 2FeSO4 + CuSO4 + S°
(10) Sphalerite: ZnS + 4Fe2(SO4)3 + 4H2O ZnSO4 + 8FeSO4 +4H2SO4
(11) Galena: PbS +Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O + 3O PbSO4 + 2FeSO4 +H2SO4
(12) Silver: 2Ag + Fe2(SO4)3 Ag2SO4 + FeSO4
If pyrite is absent from deposits undergoing oxidation, only minor amounts of the
solvents are formed; little solution occurs, the sulfides tend to be converted in situ
into oxidized compounds, and the hypogene sulfides are not enriched.
A country rock of limestone tends to inhibit migration of some sulfate solutions; it immediately reacts
with copper sulfate, for example, to form copper carbonates, thus precluding any
supergene sulfide enrichment.
During the oxidation processes:
Alumina-silicate minerals are leached of silica and the oxidized material becomes clay by
hydrogen ion metasomatism.
The leached silica may exist as a gel or a cryptocrystalline material incorporated with various
amounts of iron oxide dispersed through the silica.
This material is jasper; jasperoid is a prime prospecting tool used in function with the study
of gossans and alteration.
22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
18
20. Formation of Copper Oxides
Copper ore bodies have been subjected to weathering at or near the surface of the Earth
after eons of erosion removed overlying rocks.
Oxygenated groundwater, derived from rainwater, trickles through fractures in the rock and
forms a leaching zone where chalcopyrite, a primary sulfide mineral, is dissolved and
oxidized.
22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
20
Formation of Copper Oxides
21. The iron hydroxide (called limonite) forms a residual deposit known as a gossan (or iron hat) typically rust-red
in color, used by prospectors as indicators of underlying mineralization.
FeS2 (Pyrite) + 7.5O2 + 3.5H2O Fe(OH)3 (Iron hydroxide )+ 2(SO4)2- + 4H+
CuFeS2 (Chalcopyrite) + O2 + H2O + CO2 Fe(OH)3 + CuSO4 (Copper sulfate) + H2SO4 + H2CO3 (Carbonic acid)
2CuFeS2 + 8.5O2 + 2H2O ↔ Fe2O3 + 2Cu+2 + 4SO4
-2 + 4H+
CuFeS2 + 8Fe2(SO4)3 + 8H2O ↔ CuSO4 + 17FeSO4 + 8H2SO4
Result: Copper in solution, red hematite gossan remains
In Leached Zone (carbonates, including malachite, azurite): leaching of copper are provided according to the
following reaction:
CuFeS2 + O2 + H2O + CO2 Fe(OH)3 + CuSO4 + H2SO4 + H2CO3
Cu2S (Chalcocite) + SO2 + 4H+ 2Cu2+ + 2(SO4)2- + 2H2O
The copper sulfate and carbonic acid continue trickling through the fractures and react with the chalcopyrite to form
copper oxides, for example:
CuS (Covellite) + 2O2 + H2O CuO (Tenorite) + H2SO4
CuFeS2 + 2O2 + H2CO3 CuO (Tenorite) + FeCO3 (iron carbonate) + H2SO4
These oxides form an oxidation zone, 0 - 200 m in thickness above the water table.
Below the water table is a zone of supergene enrichment in which secondary sulfide minerals such as covellite
and chalcocite form from chalcopyrite and copper sulfate in solution:
CuFeS2 + CuSO4 2CuS (Covellite) + FeSO4
These kinds of reactions in the supergene zone greatly increase the concentration of copper.
Native copper might also occur in this zone.
A lot of the Bagdad and Miami (Arizona) mine production is from copper oxides. Very little of the sulfides
covellite and chalcocite are in the Bagdad ore.
Groundwater circulation can lead to re-distribution of metals above the water table.
22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
21
Formation of Copper Oxides (cont.)
23. Questions
Secondary enrichment process: Supergene enrichment:
• See thought map puzzle:
• Go through thought map puzzles.
Where oxides and carbonates of Cu {tenorite CuO,
cuprite Cu2O}, azurite Cu(CO3)2(OH)2 and malachite
Cu2(CO3(OH)2}, and chrysocolla (silicate)?
Where sulfides (reduced, chalcocite, bornite (Cu5FeS4),
native Cu)?
Talk about Gossan, the iron hat. also Cu oxide-
carbonate minerals as prospecting tool.
Talk about electrowinning, throwing old metal in for
autoelectrowinning.
22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
23
24. Grab a problem:
• Chalcocite (Cu2S) to ions
• Chalcocite (Cu2S) to cuprite (Cu2O) and Tenorite
(CuO).
• Cuprite (Cu2O) and native Cu to Tenorite (CuO)
• Tenorite(CuO) to azurite{Cu(CO3)2(OH)2} or
malachite {Cu2CO3(OH)2}
• Galena (PbS) to anglesite (PbSO4)
• Sphalerite (ZnS) to ions
• Acanthite (Ag2S) to ions
• ZnS + limestone to gypsum + smithsonite
22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
24
25. Start with Pyrite:
Balance a reaction between pyrite and oxygenated groundwater
forming dissolved species:
FeS2 + O2 + H2O ↔ FeSO4(aq) + ?
2FeS2 + 7O2 + 2H2O ↔ 2FeSO4(aq) + 2H2SO4(aq)
Still need to oxidize the ferrous Fe to ferric:
FeSO4(aq) + H2SO4(aq) + O2 ↔ Fe2(SO4)3(aq) + ?
2FeSO4(aq) + H2SO4(aq) + 0.5O2 ↔ Fe2(SO4)3(aq) + H2O
• Pyrite may be dissolved as ferrous ion:
2FeS2 + 7O2 + 2H2O ↔ 2FeSO4(aq) + 2H2SO4(aq)
• and then oxidized to ferric ion:
2FeSO4(aq) + H2SO4(aq) + 0.5O2 ↔ Fe2(SO4)3(aq) + H2O
• or converted directly to hematite:
2FeS2 + 7.5O2 + 4H2O ↔ Fe2Ο3 + 4H2SO4(aq)
• or how about:
2Fe+2(aq) + 0.5O2 + 2H2O ↔ Fe2O3 + 4H+
22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
25
26. Ex: Chalcopyrite Oxidation
aCuFeS2 ↔ zFe2O3
What other reactants?
aCuFeS2 + bO2 + cH2O ↔ zFe2O3 + ?
What other products and required stoichiometry?
aCuFeS2 + bO2 + cH2O ↔ a/2Fe2O3 + aCu+2 + 2aSO4
-2 + 2cH+
Now start balancing.
2CuFeS2 + bO2 + cH2O ↔ 1Fe2O3 + 2Cu+2 + 4SO4
-2 + 2cH+
Deal with any other cations.
2CuFeS2 + bO2 + 2H2O ↔ Fe2O3 + 2Cu+2 + 4SO4
-2 + 4H+
Balance oxygens and check charges.
2CuFeS2 + 8.5O2 + 2H2O ↔ Fe2O3 + 2Cu+2 + 4SO4
-2 + 4H+
• Result: Copper in solution, red hematite gossan remains
22 November 2015
Prof. Dr. H.Z. Harraz Presentation
Supergene Enrichment
26