Archwires /orthodontic courses /certified fixed orthodontic courses by Indian dental academy

ARCH WIRES
INDIAN DENTAL ACADEMY
Leader in continuing dental education
www.indiandentalacademy.com

CONTENTS
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Introduction
Properties of wires
Phases of Archwire Development
The Early archwires
Gold alloy wires
Stainless steel wires
Australian orthodontic wires
Braided wires

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Chrome cobalt Alloy wires
Nickel Titanium wires
Alpha Titanium
B-Titanium
Esthetic archwires
Cross section v/s Modulus v/s Transition
temperature
• Applying archwires
• In search of an Ideal archwire
• Conclusion.

INTRODUCTION
• Over the last century, material science has made
rapid progress. This has been evident in our day
to day lives also. And Orthodontics, particularly,
has benefited largely from this. In this branch of
dentistry, not only have the materials been
improved, but also the philosophies have changed.
Orthodontics has come a long way since the days
of the E-arch and various removable appliances
used in the early 20th century.

• With the introduction of the Edgewise appliance
newer materials needed to be introduced in order
to make the most of these appliances. This was
the first time that precise positioning of the crown
and root was possible. Wires which had good
formability, increased resilience and low cost were
obviously favoured. This was probably the reason
why stainless steel (and Elgiloy) prevailed over
the noble metal alloys. The needs of the Begg
appliance were quite different from that of the
traditional edgewise appliance. This led Begg and
Wilcock to produce a variety of stainless steel that
would provide low continuous forces over a long
period of time.

• The nickel-titanium alloys introduced in the
1970’s showed some remarkable properties of
superelasticity and shape memory, although these
could not be exploited clinically at that time. The
wires had limited formability, but could still be
used in the traditional edgewise appliance. The
next generation of NiTi wires benefited a lot by
the pre adjusted edgewise appliances popularity.
This appliance required lesser amount of bends
incorporated into the wire, and the A-NiTi’s
perfectly suited this. However, the TMA wires
introduction filled the gap between stainless steel
and Nickel Titanium alloys wires, with properties
that were intermediate to the two of these alloys.

• Thus, we can see how the appliance
philosophies and material science progress
is closely interrelated. All these wire alloys
that were introduced and the newer ones
have some very individualistic and unique
properties associated with them. So in
order to use the newer wires, it is important
to know as to why they behave this way i.e.,
their properties.


PROPERTIES OF WIRES
• Stiffness:It can be defined as the ratio of
force to deflection of a member.


Strength:Strength is the maximal stress required
to fracture a structure.


Range/Flexibility
Range is defined as the distance the wire will bend
elastically before deformation occurs, and is measured in
millimeters.


Resilience:
It represents the energy storage capacity of the wire
and is a combination of strength and springiness.
It is the area in the stress stain curve out to the
proportional limit.


• Formability:
• Formability is the
amount of permanent
deformation a wire can
withstand
before
failing. It represents
total
amount
of
permanent bending a
wire
will
tolerate
before it breaks.
• It is represented by the
area under the curve
between yield stress
and tensile strength.

PHASES OF ARCHWIRE DEVELOPMENT
• Evans (BJO 1990) divided the phases of archwire
development into five phases on the basis of (a) Method of
force delivery, (b) Force/Deflection characteristics and (c)
Material.
• PHASE I
• Method of force delivery: Variation in archwire

dimension
• Force/Deflection characteristics: Linear force/deflection
ratio
• Material: Stainless steel, Gold


• PHASE II
• Method of force delivery: Variation in archwire material
but same dimension
• Force/Deflection characteristics: Linear force/deflection
characteristics
• Material: Beta Titanium, Nickel titanium, Stainless steel,
Cobalt chromium
• PHASE III
• Method of force delivery: Variation in archwire diameter
• Force/Deflection characteristics: Non-linear force
deflection characteristic due to stress induced structural
change
• Material: Superelastic Nickel Titanium

• PHASE IV
• Method of force delivery: Variation in structural
composition of archwire material
• Force/Deflection characteristics: Non-linear
force/deflection characteristic dictated by thermally induced
structural change
• Material: Thermally activated Nickel titanium
• PHASE V
• Method of force delivery: Variation in archwire
composition/structure
• Force/Deflection characteristics: Non-linear
force/deflection characteristics dictated by different
thermally induced structural changes in the sections of the
archwire
• Material: Graded, thermally activated nickel titanium

THE EARLY ARCHWIRES
• The scarcity of adequate dental materials at the end of the
nineteenth century launched E.H. Angle on his quest for
new sources
• Angle listed only a few materials as appropriate work.
These included strips or wires of precious metal, wood,
rubber, vulcanite, piano wire, and silk thread.
• Before Angle began his search for new materials,
orthodontists made attachments from noble metals and
their alloys Gold (at least 75%, to avoid discoloration),
platinum, iridium, and silver alloys were esthetically
pleasing and corrosion resistant, but they lacked flexibility
and tensile strength

• In 1887 Angle tried replacing noble metals with German
silver, a brass. His contemporary, J.N. Farrar, condemned
the use of the new alloy, showing that it discolored in the
mouth Farrar’s opinion was shared by many
• To obtain the desired properties, Angle acted, as stated in
1888, “by varying the proportion of Cu, Ni and Zn” around
the average composition of the Neusilber brass (German
silver, 65%Cu, 14%Ni,21%Zn), as well as by applying
cold working operations at various degrees of plastic
deformation.
• Besides its “unsightliness” and obvious lack of
reproducibility (variations in composition and processing),
the mechanical and chemical properties of German silver
were well below modern demands. However, because it
could be readily soldered, this brass allowed Angle to
design more complex appliances.

• The material that was to truly displace noble metals was
stainless steel. As with German silver, it had its opponents.
As late as 1934 Emil Herbst held that gold was stronger
than stainless steel without exfoliation. If forced to choose,
he even preferred German silver to stainless steel.
Eventually, better manufacturing procedures and quality
control made stainless steel the material of choice.


GOLD ALLOYS
• Their composition is very similar to the
Type IV gold casting alloys. The typical
composition of the alloy is as follows• Gold – 15 – 65% (55-65% more typical)
• Copper – 11 – 18%
• Silver – 10 – 25%
• Nickel – 5 – 10%

• The alloys contain quite a high amount
about (20 – 25%) of palladium. Platinum is
also present and in presence of palladium, it
raises the melting point of the alloys, and
makes it corrosion resistant.
• Copper incorporates strength to the wire.
They acquire additional strengthening
through
cold
working,
which
is
incorporated during the wire drawing
process

• This combination of properties makes gold
very formable and capable of delivering
lower forces than stainless steel. These
wires are easily joined by soldering and the
joints are very corrosion resistant.
• The gold wires are not used anymore in
orthodontics mainly because of their low
yield strength and increasing cost has made
its use prohibitive.


HEAT TREATMENT OF GOLD WIRE
• The changes that are produced in the
strength and ductility of a wrought gold
alloy by heat treatment are due to the
alterations in the gold-copper compound
present in the alloy.
• In order to uniformly soften most wrought
gold wire it is heated to 1300° F. for
approximately 10 minutes and then
quenched

• The wire is very soft and ductile and may
be easily manipulated
• If left standing at room temperature for
several days, will become much harder.
This phenomenon is known as “agehardening” or “precipitation-hardening”.


• Other method: If, after quenching from
1300° F. The wire is reheated to
approximately 840° F. and allowed to cool
slowly from this temperature, the goldcopper compound tends to come out of
solution.
• By not using heat treatment procedures the
orthodontist is not obtaining the maximum
properties from his alloys.


• Besides precipitation hardening there are
two other ways by which the strength of
wrought gold wire may be increased. One
of these methods is cold working. The
other method is to vary the composition of
the alloy constituents.


STAINLESS STEEL
• CARBON STEEL: Steels are iron-based
alloys that contain less than 1.2% carbon.


CHROMIUM STEEL
• When chromium (generally 12-30%) is
added to the steel, the alloy is called
stainless steel.
• Chromium & Nickel are also called
“Austenitic fillers”
• Chromium has a “passivating effect” on
steel

Types of stainless steels
• FERRITIC STAINLESS STEEL (AISI
series 400)
• MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEEL:
(AISI series 400)
• AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS
(AISI series 302 & 304)


SENSITIZATION
• The 18-8 stainless steels may lose its
corrosion to resistance if it is heated
between 400-9000 C
• Due to precipitation of chromium carbide
at the grain boundaries


Overcoming Sensitization
• Reduce the carbon content
• Cold working
• STABILIZATION: Addition of Titanium


HEAT TREATMENT OF STAINLESS
STEEL
Done to
• Overcome decrease in yield stress
(Bauschinger effect)
• Stability: Arch form & Wire bending


• Kemler: 700-8000F for 5-15 minutes
• Backofen and Gales: 750-8200F for 10
minutes
• Funk: 8500F for 3 minutes


• Properties:
• The modulus of elasticity ranges from 23 X
106 to 24X106 psi. The wires have a very
high yield strength of 50,000-280,000 psi.
• This wire is strong, has excellent
formability, adequate springback, offers low
frictional resistance, can be soldered, has
good corrosion resistance & moderate cost.


• By The 50’s Rocky Mountain Orthodontics
offered two tempers of cold worked
stainless steels: Standard and extra hard
grade
• Today American Orthodontics advertises
three grades of stainless steel wires:
Standard, Gold Tone, Super Gold Tone


AUSTRALIAN ORTHODONTIC WIRES
• Developed by Mr. A. J. Wilcock & Dr. P.
R. Begg
• Acquaintance goes back to the war years at
the University of Melbourne.
• Dr. Begg demanded a wire that remained
active in the mouth for long periods.
• High Tensile wires were developed

• Difficulties faced with high tensile
wires(1970s):

• Impossible to straighten.
• Work softening
• Breakage of wire

OVERCOMING THE DIFFICULTIES
• Old method - Spinner straightening: Yield
stress decreases due to Bauschinger effect
• New method - Pulse straightening(1980s) :
No plastic deformation whatsoever.


Advantages of Pulse straightening
• Permits the highest tensile wire to be
straightened, previously not possible.
• The material tensile yield stress is not
suppressed in any way.
• The wire has a much smoother appearance
and hence less bracket friction.


Mr. Wilcock, Jr.’s recommendations to
decrease breakage:
• Use the flat beak
• Round the edges of the pliers
• Warm the wire


Two philosophy approach to FlexibilityResiliency
(I). Flexibility (Fl)
α strain
(II). Elastic modulus (E) = yield stress
Strain
Multiplying (I) and (II), we get
(Fl) x (E) = (Strain) x Yield stress
Strain
∴ (Fl) x (E) =
∴Flexibility =

yield stress
yield stress
E


Elastic modulus (E) = yield stress
Strain
`

∴ Strain =

yield stress
Elastic modulation

(A)

In an right angled triangle ,Area = ½ x base x height
∴Resilience = area under the graph
∴ Resilience = ½ x height x base
= ½ x (yield stress) x (strain)
Replacing the value of strain from equation (A), we get
Resilience= ½ x (yield stress) x

(yield stress)
E

Resilience = ½ x (yield stress) 2
E
Resilience

α

(yield stress) 2
E

RESILIENCY α

(Yield stress) 2
Elastic modulus

FLEXIBILITY α

Yield stress
Elastic modulus


Grades of wire available
Regular with white label
Regular plus with green label
Special grade with black label
Special plus with orange label
Extra special plus (ESP) with blue label
Premium with blue label
Premium plus
Supreme with blue label
Regular grade is the least and premium grade is the most
resilient of all the wires

Properties
• The ultimate tensile strength for pulsestraightened wires is 8-12% higher than
stainless steel wires.
• The load-deflection rate is higher
• The pulse-straightened wires have a
significantly higher working range and
recovery patterns.
• Frictional resistance of the pulse-straightened
wires is lesser

Zero Stress Relaxation
• This is the ability of a wire to deliver a
constant light elastic force when subjected
to an external force or forces of occlusion.
• This indicates that the wire should have a
very high and sharp yield point with low
elongation.
• This is probably in the region of ‘special
plus’ and above

BRAIDED WIRES
• The stiffness of an archwire can be varied in three
ways.
• The first and traditional approach has been to vary
the dimensions of the wire. Small changes in
dimensions can result in large variations in
stiffness.The difference between .016” and .014”
diameter is approximately 40%.
• The second approach to vary the elastic modulus
E. That is, use various archwire materials such as
Nitinol , Beta-Titanium, Gold alloys and stainless
steel.

• A third approach, which is really an extension of
the second, is to build up a strand of stainless steel
wire, for example, a core wire of .0065” and six .
0055” wrap, wires will produce an overall
diameter approximately .0165 inches. The reason
why the strand has a more flexible feel is due to
the contact slip between adjacent wrap wires and
the core wire of the stand.
•
When the strand is deflected the wrap wires,
which are both under tension, and torsion will slip
with respect to the core wire and each other.
Providing there is only elastic deformation each
wire should return to its original position.

• Kusy and Dilley noted that the stiffness of a triple
stranded 0175” ( 3 X 008”) stainless steel arch wire was
similar to that of 0.010” single stranded stainless steel
arch wire. The multistranded archwire was also 25%
stronger than the .010” stainless steel wire.
• The .0175” triple stranded wire and .016” Nitinol
demonstrated a similar stiffness. However nitinol
tolerated 50% greater activation than the multistranded
wire.
• The triple stranded wire was also half as stiff as .016”
beta-titanium.
• Multistranded wire can be used as a substitute to the
newer alloy wire considering the cost of nickel titanium
wire.

CHROME COBALT ALLOY
• Initially it was manufactured for watch springs by Elgin
Watch Company, hence the name Elgiloy.
CONTENTS
• 40% Cobalt
• 20% Chromium
• 15% Nickel
• 7% Molybdenum
• 2% Manganese
• 0.15% Carbon
• 0.4% Beryllium
• 15% Iron.

Types of Elgiloy
• Blue Elgiloy – can be bent easily with
fingers and pliers.
• Yellow Elgiloy – Relatively ductile and
more resilient than blue Elgiloy.
• Green Elgiloy – More resilient than yellow
Elgiloy
• Red Elgiloy -Most resilient of Elgiloy wires

HEAT TREATMENT
• The ideal temperature for heat treatment is
900°F or 482°C for 7-12 min in a dental
furnace.
• This causes precipitation hardening of the
alloy increasing the resistance of the wire to
deformation.


Disadvantages
• Greater degree of work hardening
• High temperatures (above 1200°F) cause
annealing

Advantages
• Greater resistance to fatigue and distortion
• Longer function as a resilient spring
• High moduli of elasticity

NICKEL TITANIUM ALLOYS
Nickel titanium alloys have certain characteristic properties
associated with them. These properties are primarily
exhibited due to its crystal structure. At higher temperatures
the crystal structure is that of a body centered cubic (BCC)
and is called AUSTENITE. At lower temperatures the
crystal structure is that of a hexagonal closed packed
structure called MARTENSITE.
The two most important properties of nickel titanium alloys are
1. SHAPE MEMORY
2. SUPER ELASTICITY

SHAPE MEMORY
• Shape memory refers to the ability of the
material to “remember” its original shape
after being plastically deformed while in the
martensitic form.
• Also called THERMOELASTICITY

SUPERELASTICITY
• This is a mechanical equivalent of the
change, which is observed due to cooling of
austenite
• This is possible because the TTR for these
alloys is very close to room temperature.
• Kusy has also called it Pseudoelasticity.

• Whether, it is thermo or pseudo - elasticity,
the transition from martensite to austenite
occurs with ease.


Hysteresis
• When the austenitic nickel-titanium wire is
stressed, it can be observed that the loading
curve differs from its unloading curve.
• This reversibility has an energy loss
associated with it, this is known as
hysteresis

Loading-Unloading for S.S.


Loading-Unloading for Niti


Effect of temperature on the
bending characteristics


CONVENTIONAL/STABILIZED
NICKEL-TITANIUM ALLOYS
• ‘Nitinol’ was developed in the early 1960’s by
William F.Buehler, a research metallurgist at the
Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Silver Springs,
Maryland.
• Clinical use of nickel-titanium was started by
Andreasen in May, 1972
• The shape memory effect (SME) had been suppressed
by cold working
• Proffit refers to these alloys as M-NiTi’s.

Advantages
• Low stiffness
• Outstanding range
• High springback
(Comparable to braided S.S. wires - Barrowers,
Kusy and Stevens)

Disadvantages
• Lack of formability
• No shape memory, super elasticity, and hysteresis

SUPERELASTIC NICKEL TITANIUM
ALLOYS (Active Austentic)
• Chinese Niti-developed by Dr.Tien Hua
Cheng reported by Burstone (1985)
• Japanese Niti produced by the Furukawa
Electric Co, which was first reported by
Miura (1986)

• These wires, in their ‘as received’ condition
were in the austenitic phase, and they showed
the property of superelasticity.
• Super elasticity results from stress induction,
as in archwire ligation.
• ‘Hysteresis’ is seen in these wires.
Disadvantage
• Wire bending is all bit impossible with these
alloys

DERHT
• Miura et al (1988)
• Direct Electric Resistance Heat treatment


• Wire bending done with two pliers that are
connected to electrode
• Also, changes the force exerted by that
segment of the wire through which current
is passed
• However not found to be practically
feasible at that time

• Now this method is used
(eg.Archmate)

New Application of Superelastic
NiTi Rectangular Wire
• (Miura 1990) In heat treatment, the superelastic
NiTi alloy not only changes its force level, but
memorizes form. The latter characteristic makes it
possible to condition an archwire so that it
memorizes a particular archform, including
torque, angulation, and buccolingual movements.
The archwire can therefore be formed in the
laboratory ahead of time, rather than using
precious chairtime. The archform will also be
more accurate than if it were bent at chairside.

THERMODYNAMIC NICKEL
TITANIUM ALLOYS
• After experimentation, it was observed that the
transition temperature range (TTR) of the nickel
titanium alloys could be altered and infact carefully
controlled using certain procedures and additions.
• Sachdeva has stated that the factors affecting the TTR
of these alloys include:
• .Amount of Nickel content.
• .Annealing temperature
• .Amount of cold working
• .Amount of third element, which is copper (Cu).

Amount Of Nickel Content


Annealing Temperature


Copper - The Third Element
• Copper additions increase the strength and
reduce the energy lost
• However,increases its phase transformation
temperature above that of the ambient oral
cavity.
• 0.5% chromium is added to return the
transformation temperature to 27°C

• Thus, by making use of these variables, the
manufacturers have been able to make
archwires that have different TTR’s. It
means that the austenitic finish (Af) phase
is reached at different temperatures. This
temperature is called Austenitic finish
temperature or Af temp.
• Also, the surrounding temperature affects
the force that these wires exert on the tooth

Types of thermodynamic nickel titanium

•
•
•
•

TYPE I: Af temperature – 10-15 °C
TYPE II: Af temperature – 27 °C
Type III: Af temperature – 35°C
Type IV: Af temperature – 40°C.


GRADED THERMODYNAMIC
NICKEL TITANIUM ARCHWIRES
• The response of a tooth to force application
and the rate of tooth movement is
dependent upon the surface area of the
periodonitum
• Variable forces within the archwires would
be better
• Bioforce archwire: Differential force
anteriorly and posteriorly

• Variety of stress versus strain relationships
are exhibited by current NiTi alloys, which
are available in the market (Proffit,
Sachdeva)

• Trials have failed to demonstrate any
significant differences in the alignment
capabilities of superelastic versus ‘Nitinol’
archwires, (O’Brien et al., 1990; West et al.,
1995).

ALPHA TITANIUM
Pure titanium:
• Below 885° C - hexagonal closed packed or
alpha lattice is stable
• At higher temperature the metal rearranges
into body centered cubic or beta crystal.
• HCP- possesses fewer slip planes

• Gets hardened by absorbing intraoral free
hydrogen ions, which turn it into titanium
hydride, at the oral temperature of 37°C and
100% humidity.
• Any modifications if required should be
done within six weeks (Mollenhauer)


BETA TITANIUM
(TITANIUM MOLYBDENUM ALLOY OR
T.M.A.)

• Introduced by Dr. Burstone (1980)

Composition
80% Titanium
11.5% Molybdenum
6% Zirconium
4.5% Tin

Advantages of TMA v/s Nitinol
• Smoother
• Can be welded
• Good formability

Advantages of TMA v/s S.S.
• Gentler forces
• More range
• Higher springback

• Drawback: High coefficient of friction

Low friction TMA:
• Introduced by Ormco
• Done by ion implantation beam mechanism

TMA Colours:
• Also developed by Ormco
• Implantation of oxygen and nitrogen ions
• Ensures colour fastness

ESTHETIC ARCHWIRES
• Composites: can be composed of ceramic
fibers that are embedded in a linear or
cross-linked polymeric matrix.
• Developed by a process known as
pultrusion


A prototype (reported by Kusy) shows the
following characteristics:
•
•
•
•

Tooth coloured
Adequate strength
Variable stiffness
Resilience and springback comparable to Niti

• Low friction (beta staging)
• Enhanced biocompatibility (beta staging)
(Formability, weldability are unknown)

OPTIFLEX
Made of clear optical fibre; comprises of three layers:
1. A silicon dioxide core
2. A silicon resin middle layer
3. A stain resistant nylon outer layer

Silicon
Silicon Dioxide resin
Core
Middle
Layer

Nylon Outer Layer


Properties
• The most esthetic orthodontic arch wire to
date.
• Completely stain resistant
• Exerts light continuous forces
• Very flexible


Precautions to be taken with
Optiflex
• Use elastomeric ligatures.
• No Sharp bends
• Avoid using instruments with sharp edges, like the
scalers etc., to force the wire into the bracket slot.
• Use the (501) mini distal end cutter (AEZ)
• No rough diet
• Do not “cinch Back”

Other esthetic archwires
• E.T.E. coated Nickel Titanium: E.T.E. is an
abbreviation for ELASTOMERIC POLY
TETRA FLORETHYLENE EMULSION
• Stainless steel or Nickel titanium arch wire
bonded to a tooth coloured EPOXY coating


Cross-section
1970s: Only S.S.;
varying the cross-sectional diameter)

v/s
Modulus
(1980s: S.S., Niti, B-Ti; varying the elastic modulus)

v/s
Transition temperature
(1990s: Cu Niti; Varying TTR/Af)

APPLYING ARCHWIRES


IN SEARCH OF THE IDEAL
ARCHWIRE


CONCLUSION
• It can be seen that there is not archwire meets all the
requirements of the orthodontist. We still have a long way
to go, in terms of finding the ‘ideal’ archwire. But, with
such rapid progress being made in science and technology,
I am sure that we will see significant improvements in
archwires in the near future.
• Also, we must consider ourselves fortunate to have such a
wide array of materials to choose from. Just imagine
working with just a single type of Gold alloy wire, like
they used to not so long ago. So we should appreciate this
fact and try to make the most of what we have.

THANK YOU


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LIST OF REFERENCES

Applied Dental Materials: John F. Mc Cabe 7th Edition 1990
Blackwell Scientific Publication. Pg. 69.
The Clinical handling of Dental Materials: Bernard G.N. Smith, Paul
S. Wright, David Brown. WRIGHT Publications, 2nd Edition, 1994;
Pg. 195-199.
Howe G.L. Greener E.H., Crimmins D.S.: Mechanical properties and
stress relief of stainless steel orthodontic wire. AO 1968; 38: 244-249.
Andreasen G. Heilman H., Krell D.: Stiffness changes in
thermodynamic NiTinol with increasing temperature AO 1985;
55:120-126.
Edie J.W.: Andreasen G.F., Zaytoun M.P.: Surface corrosion of
Nitinol and stainless steel under clinical conditions AO 1981; 51:319324.
Miura F, Mogi M. Yoshiaki O: Japanese NiTi alloy wire use of
electric heat resistance treatment method EJO 198; 10; 187-191.
Andreasen G.F., Murrow R.E. : Laboratory and clinical analyses of
nitinol wire AJODO 1978; 73: 142-151.
Evans T.J.W, Durning P: Orthodontic Product update – Aligning
archwires, the shape of things to come? – A fourth and fifth phase of
force delivery. BJO 1996; 23:269-275.
Kusy R.P. : A review of contemporary archwires-Their properties and
characteristics AO 1997; 67: 197-207.

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Wilcock A.J., Jr. : Applied materials engineering for orthodontic
wires. Aust. Jor. Orthod. 1989; V:22-29.
Burstone C.J. Bai Q., Morton J.Y. : Chinese NiTi Wire – A new
orthodontic alloy AJODO 1985; 87; 445-452.
Fillmore G.M., Tomlinson J.L.: Heat treatment of Cobalt chromium
alloys of various tempers AO : 1979; 49: 126-130.
Kohl R.W. : Metallurgy in orthodontics. AO 1964; 34: 37-42.
Waters N.E.: Orthodontic product update-Super elastic NickelTitanium wires. BJO 1992; 19: 319-322.
Andreasen G.G., Hilleman T.B.: An evaluation of 55 Cobalt
substituted NiTinol wire for the use in orthodontics. JADA 1971; 82:
1373-1375.
Beckoten W.A., Gales G.F.: Heat treated stainless steel for
orthodontics. AJODO 1952; 38: 755-765.
Wilcock A..J., Jr: JCO Interview, JCO 1988; 22: 484-489.
Burstone C.J., Goldberg A.J.: Beta Titanium. A new orthodontic alloy.
AJODO 1980; 77; 121 –132.
Kapilla S., Sachdeva R: Mechanical properties and clinical
applications of orthdontic wires.


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Miura F, Mogi M., Ohura Y and Humanaka H: The super-elastic
property of Japanese NiTi alloy wire for use in orthodontics AJODO
1986; 90:1-10.
Proffit W.R., Fields H.W Jr.: Contemporary orthodontics – Mosby 3rd
Edition 2000 Pg 326-334.
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