When I was president of the SUNY Cortland Physics Club, I tried introducing Linux distros and the UNIX OS to the club at large, including installing Linux on the club computers. Funny story, one time when messing around in Ubuntu I deleted the Bootloader by accident, and spent hours trying to get the computer to load back up. I was so proud when I figured it out that I didn't even fix the problem, I just left a sticky note telling other people how to boot the computer up if they wanted to use it

1. Linux
An Introduction to Operating Systems and the Physics
Club Computers

2. Privacy
As the internet revolution continues to transform
global dynamics, a disturbing trend has continued to
manifest itself; namely, the absolute monopoly of
companies such as Google and Apple, and the data
collecting practices these companies assume.
Andrew Lewis once famously said that “If you’re not
paying for it, you’re not the customer; you’re the
product being sold.” Indeed, even if companies such
as Google and Apple are morally ambiguous at worst,
the very existence of the information they hold is
dangerous, even to the most law-abiding citizens. It is
my belief that by familiarizing oneself with the basics
of this new world that we find ourselves in that we
will be placed in the most advantageous situation
going forward, both as individuals and as a whole.

4. Physics Club Computers
My Name is Anthony, and I am the Physics Club Member who
installed Linux distros on our computers over a proprietary OS
such as Windows. I also made the decision to keep two of the
club computers off of the school’s network, so that we, as the
club, would retain administrative privileges. My motivation for
this is twofold: so that our computers are as fast as possible, and
so that we can do whatever we want to these two computers.
I wrote this guide so that anybody interested in using the
computers would have a reference for these computers, to
facilitate the use of these computers. I am afraid that after I leave
the school, the two computers will be abandoned. Having these
computers and learning to use them is helpful, because at best
one will learn a marketable skill, and at worst one will have a
more intimate understanding of a technology he or she will use
every day for the rest of one’s life.

5. Common Safety Features
This section will outline some of the more useful
security features that can be used on a computer
These security features will protect a computer in at
least one of two respects:
1. Privacy
2. Security and Defense from Malware

6. Virtual Machines
A virtual machine allows a user to run a
‘computer’ inside of a computer
A user allots a certain amount of
memory and computing power to a
virtual machine, which is then treated
as an entirely different computer
While a user can often draw anything
that he wants from the virtual machine
into his main computer, the reverse is
not true. As such, if a virtual machine
gets a virus, most of the time that virus
will not be able to affect the main
computer without being downloaded
into the main computer. As such, I like
to use virtual machines to test
downloads, etc…
Machines can be created, duplicated, or
destroyed in seconds
https://www.virtualbox.org/ is a freeVM

7. Proxies
A proxy is a separate server which acts as an intermediary
your computer uses for internet requests.
Proxies enable users to hide their true locations (very
useful if something is blacked out at a location, for example
in China), I.P., and their identities.
Many different proxies are available for any user’s needs
and wants. While proxies aren’t foolproof, they provide an
extra layer of protection and anonymity that one wouldn’t
otherwise have.
A list of proxies, both free and paid, may be found by using
google. I personally use cyberghost

8. Tor Browser
The Tor Browser enables a user access into .onion sites and what
is commonly referred to as the ‘Darknet,’ because many of the
websites aren’t found on conventional search engines.
The Tor Browser works like an Onion, and has layers. The tor
browser operates using nodes
A user sends a request to a node (A). The node(A) sends the
request to another node(B), which doesn’t know the identity of
the user, only the identity of the node(A) that sent the
information. This process continues, ultimately scrambling the
information and ensuring anonymity by the time that the
information reaches the server.
The Tor Browser is based on firefox, and is available for free at
www.torproject.org

9. Encryption
Encryption is the best way to send information securely.
Encryption works by encoding messages so that only the
intended recipient can read it, and will be addressed in a
later slide in greater detail.
Encryption is the reason why we are able to use credit
cards online without worrying about our information
being stolen.
A backdoor is an encryption ‘key,’ and anybody who has a
backdoor can break any encryption that they have the key
for. The existence of a backdoor renders the whole point
of encryption useless, and many companies, such as
google and apple, do not keep backdoors for their
encryption as a response to government hacking.

10. What is an Operating System (OS)
An operating system is a software that manages both
the hardware and software of a computer.
Operating Systems are the brain of a computer.
Operating Systems can range from more proprietary
OS such as Windows for desktop computers, to more
specialized OS such as Desktop, which is used in the
Xbox 360.
Linux is a UNIX-based operating system, which means
that Linux shares a family tree with OS such as
Solaris and Mac OS

11. All operating systems have five components
1. A memory manager, which manages RAM, which acts as the on-
hand memory for a computer. Additionally, the manager
retrieves and stores memory requests
2. A processor manager, which manages the Central Processing
Unit (CPU). The CPU is a hardware that deremines the
computing/processing power of a computer, and defines how
much ‘stuff’ a computer can do.
3. A device manager, which manages all external components, such
as keyboards, monitors, and the mouse
4. A file manager, which keeps track of every file in the system and
the permissions for all files. A main job of the file manager is to
prevent the OS files from being edited, which can destroy the
computer.
5. A network manager, which manages network sharing and
processes in computers.

12. Unix Family Tree

13. Unix vs. Windows
The two major families of operating systems in the world
are UNIX and Windows; almost every operating system
you can name falls in one of these two categories.
Windows had a monopoly on the software world for a
very long time, in large part because of deals with IBM
and Intel.
However, more recently, Unix based Operating Systems,
such as Android and Mac OS, have become more
compatible with the hardware of Intel, and have rose in
popularity. Linux, the most popular Unix based OS,
became a dominant OS due to its customizability.

14. Why Linux?
Linux is notorious for having an incredibly good kernel; the kernel is
what manages the core of an OS, and is the ‘heart’ of any OS.
Linux distributions take the Linux kernel and make modifications; as a
result, there are many different versions of Linux that are completely
different from the rest, mainly because Linux is open source (Think of a
Linux Distro as analogous to Windows 8 or Windows 9, whereas Linux
is an umbrella term which is analogous to Windows OS).
Linux is Open-Sourced, which means that the source code is freely
shared, so that anybody can edit or modify the software to make it
better, and everything is free. This is in sharp contrast to an OS such as
Windows, which is closed source, meaning only Microsoft employees
with access to Source Code can modify it.
I realize Linux isn’t for everybody; each OS has its own pros and cons,
which I will list here.

15. Windows
Pros
Due to Windows’ monopoly, just about every software is
compatible with Windows, including games and programs.
Windows is very easy to use
Cons
Due to Windows’ monopoly, a lot of people have had a lot of
time to develop viruses specifically targeting the Windows OS
Windows requires more computing power and resources
than both Linux and Mac, and is very slow in comparison

16. Mac
Pros
Macs don’t get viruses as easily as Linux (since Linux is Open
Source) and Windows
Most programs are compatible with Mac; as long as you’re not a
gamer, Mac should run everything you want it to
Mac is very easy to use, but can be modified more than Windows.
Mac is almost like a closed-source, proprietary Linux Distro
Cons
Mac is very expensive
Mac only runs with Mac-certified hardware, and can only be used on
Apple Computers

17. Linux
Pros
Linux doesn’t get nearly as many viruses as Microsoft, but is more
vulnerable than Mac OS.
Linux is by far the most customizable OS among those that are
commonly used
Everything in Linux is free
Cons
Linux is the hardest OS to get used to and to use
A lot of software is not compatible with Linux, although there are
often replacements (e.g. LibreOffice Replaces Microsoft Office)

18. What is Open Source
So I’ve mentioned a few times now that Linux is Open-Source; let’s
explore exactly what that means.
For any software (A part of a computer that is not a physical object),
there is a code that allows that software to work. If this code is
readable by another person, it is called Source Code, meaning that this
code is able to be duplicated, distributed, modified, etc… If the code is
not readable by another person, it is machine-readable, which means
that your computer can understand the code, but you can’t.
Companies that are trying to make money hide their source code, so
that their work isn’t plagiarized, modified, distributed, etc…When the
source code is hidden, it is said to be closed source.
Some people do computers for personal pleasure or personal use. A lot
of these people reveal their source code, typically making it free,
allowing other people to modify their code, making it better or simply
different. When the source code is revealed, it is said to be open source
Open Source code saves consumers billions per year, leads to better
code, and does have business applications

19. Open Source as the Future
Most software these days is Open-Source, and as the
internet continues to develop, Open Source Software
is going to become the norm.
Open Source would be the norm today if not for
Microsoft cornering the software market and forcing
consumers to pay for everything.
However, there is no way that proprietary software
can compete with Open Source as Open Source
software continues to develop, since Open Source
tends to be free, or at least dramatically cheaper.

20. What Current Softwares are Open-Source
Here is a List of some of the world’s most popular Open-Source
Software
Wordpress-The most popular blogging platform in the world, used
by 202 million websites. I’ve used wordpress to build a number of
websites for free, including http://tomahawkslacrosseclub.com/,
which I was paid to do
Firefox-One of the world’s most popular web browsers
Filezilla-One of the world’s most popular file sharing clients
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_free_and_open-
source_software_packages
In addition to open-source software, many proprietary
softwares are based on open-source software
For example, Google Chrome is based on the Open Source browser
Chromium.

21. Software in Linux
There is plenty of software that is not open source that is
compatible with Linux; it’s how we run Mathematica on a club
computer. However, there are some softwares that are not
compatible with Linux that are commonly used, such as
Microsoft Word.
In these cases, we must find an equivalent Open-Source
Software. In our case, we use LibreOffice, which is basically a
free version of Microsoft Word that is much faster and doesn’t
penalize you for not running Word on a non-Windows OS (As
Mac users know).
The easiest way to obtain software on most Linux Distros is by
visiting that distro’s software center, an “itunes” of software
that can be downloaded.
Additionally, software can be downloaded from the terminal
directly

23. What is the Terminal
The terminal is a shell
Shells are used to input commands in order to communicate
directly with the Operating System
The Linux Terminal is based on Bash, a command language
written for GNU, which developed into Linux in the early 90’s
after the development of the Linux kernel
Additionally, Mac OS terminal is also based on Bash.
Therefore, anybody that is familiar with the terminal on Mac
OS should adapt swiftly to Linux (Windows uses a shell
called command prompt, which is terrible in my opinion)

24. The Terminal
By using the terminal, we can communicate to the OS
directly.
Pretty much anything can be done from the Linux
Terminal
Linux makes more use of the Bash Shell than both Mac OS
and Windows do (You can likely own a Windows/Mac
computer without ever seeing its shell, but the same is not
true for Linux).
The shell can be intimidating at first, but is relatively
simple.

25. Common Terminal
Commands
In the terminal, we use the BASH language.
A common command used in the terminal is to install software.
This is accomplished by the following line of code
sudo apt-get install *program*
Sudo here means asking for admin privileges
apt-get means extract package (‘get’) from location advanced
packing tool (‘apt’)
Install means install the program
*program* is the program you want

26. Terminal Cheat Sheet
http://cli.learncodethehardway.org/bash_cheat_shee
t.pdf
When using the terminal, use the cheat sheet as a
reference (When I code in a language, I tend to use
cheat sheets all the time).
This cheat sheet is very intuitive and easy to follow. It
is also well organized and should cover most
commands you’ll see

27. Software Repositories
Repositories are groups of software that are
extensively tested
When you download a new distro, you’ll have the
default repository (group of software) for that
distro. If you want, you can download repositories,
which are bundles of software to ‘upgrade’ your
distro for free.
http://www.linuceum.com/Desktop/linuxAppRepos.p
hp

28. Ubuntu Help
Ubuntu is a very popular Linux distro
Ubuntu is easy to use, and maintains a very good help
community https://help.ubuntu.com/
Searching through these forums can answer most
questions, and googling other questions will give you
everything you need.

29. Installing Linux
Linux is very easy to install using any USB drive
The follow set of instructions are specific to Mac OS

30. Format the USB
Plug in the USB Drive into the
Mac, and open the
application Disk Utility
Locate your USB Drive. Click
on it, and go to the erase tab
Change format to MS-DOS
(FAT)
Click Erase
This formats the USB into a
form where it can be used
(will delete all files on the
USB)

31. Download Linux
http://www.ubuntu.com/download
Download any distro of linux that is preferred
The file should download as .iso. Go to the file in your
folders (likely in downloads), and rename the file
extension .img. This can be done by right clicking on
the file, choosing get info, and my simply changing
the extension by replacing .iso with .img

32. Open Mac Terminal

33. Follow the instructions
previously listed
Type diskutil list. This will show all drives on your device.
Locate the USB device. It will likely have the extension
/dev=/rdiskN, where N is a number (likely 2)
Type sudo (request admin permission, need password) dd
if=/<thelinux.imgfile> of=/<thediskyouwanttotransferitto>
Keep in mind, instead of typing the entire file, you can drag and
drop files from the finder on Mac into the terminal
The next step takes a while as the .img is transferred to the USB
(It took my computer over an hour). The terminal will alert you
when it is finished, and updates are able to be seen by pressing
Ctrl+T

34. Follow the instructions
previously liste
Unmount the USB by typing diskutil unmountdisk
<the extension of the USB>
Plug USB into computer you want to install Linux on
(Can be computer you downloaded Linux on).
Boot computer, and press boot options (Usually hold
f12 on a desktop computer as computer starts up, on
a mac hold c when computer starts up)
Select the harddrive you installed linux in, and you
can install linux from there

35. Linux Distros
This section is dedicated to introducing you to some
of the more prominent Linux Distros

36. Ubuntu
Ubuntu is the most widely
used, and easiest to use,
distro of Linux (Installed on
club computer)
Ubuntu has the best support
community of all linux
distributions, and is the
easiest to use
Ubuntu is the perfect OS to
get used to Linux
It’s much faster than your
current OS

37. Kubuntu
Kubuntu is a derivative of
Ubuntu that is very, very
customizable
The best way to think of
kubuntu is as Ubuntu+
Kubuntu is essentially a
better form of ubuntu, and
is one of the better all
around OS’s available

38. Tails OS
Tails OS is an operating
system that’s based entirely
around privacy, anonymity,
and security
Tails runs as a Live CD, and
therefore doesn’t leave a
trace on the Hard Drive of a
computer.
Tails OS forces to use the
tor browser, to secure
online anonymity

39. Debian
Debian is the most secure
OS for linux
Debian will rarely crash,
and is a great choice for
hosting a server

40. Kali Linux
Kali Linux was made for
ethical hacking
Has a small choice of
repositories
Kali Linux only supports
single, root user
Kali Linux has a customized
kernel that’s designed for
hacking

41. Elementary OS
One of the cleanest looking
Operating Systems (runs on a
club computer)
Aesthetically based on Mac
OS
Runs out-of-the-box, meaning
can be used fully after
download
Uses custom programs that
are optimized for the OS
Very easy to use

42. Dual Booting
For those that do not want to commit to Linux fully, it is possible to
dual boot Linux
Dual booting requires splitting the hard drive of a computer into
multiple partitions, then choosing which partition to use at start up
For example, if you have a 500 GB hard drive on a Mac, this hard drive can
be split into two partitions by using disk utility; one with say 300 GB, and
one with 200 GB
For all intents and purposes, these partitions are treated as
separate hard drives
One hard drive can run Mac OS, and the second hard drive can run
any other OS, whether Windows, Linux, etc…
This gives the freedom to choose one’s OS depending on
what the user needs

43. Dual Booting
To Dual Boot, split hard drive into multiple partitions,
and install Linux onto the new hard drive the same
way Linux would be installed on a blank computer.
Many Linux Distros, such as Ubuntu, give the
opportunity to repartition the hard drive after the
USB is plugged in, to save the work
Linux can also be run from a USB without having to
be downloaded onto a computer. Simply put the
distro on a USB, plug it in, and try running it