Palace Of Versailles Essay

Palace Of Versailles Essay
12/12/2016
Gabrielle Okun
Versailles: Louis XIV's Political Masterpiece
The Palace of Versailles is an architectural masterpiece due to the Baroque influences that give it a
larger than life theatrical flair. Versailles is intriguing due to the complex history into the building of
it and the multidimensional designs of the palace, gardens, and town. Louis XIV's building of
Versailles Palace utilizes Baroque aesthetics to legitimize the absolute power of royalty. While the
central style of Versailles originates from Louis XIV, there were many people that collaborated on
the construction. One can examine the difference in personalities of the royal family the Bourbons.
Louis XIV's father Louis XIII used Versailles as a small getaway where he could hunt peacefully
outside of Paris. His son used Versailles as a way to reflect his character, power, and wealth.
However, others believe that the true reason he left Paris was to have time away and out of the
public eye with his mistresses.1 Regardless of the rationale, in 1661 he ordered the reconstruction of
the exterior and interior of Versailles.2 The palace of Versailles simply originated from an old
hunting lodge belonging to his father, in the small village of Versailles. Marin writes that, ... Show
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Le Brun depicted both the wars that Louis XIV had fought and won by this date."21 One of the most
provocative paintings is "The tableau of Louis leading the French crossing of the 1672 sums up the
bombastic approach. Hair streaming, dressed in Roman style and holding a thunderbolt like a
projectile, Louis sits godlike on a silver chariot pushed by Hercules while riding roughshod over
female personifications of nearby enemy towns.22 This painting emphasizes how Louis wanted to
be remembered as a deistic force. While the painting alludes to classicism, Louis XIV wanted the
captions to be written in french so that he could communicate with
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Methods And Contributions Of The ABO Antigen
Another group of antigens that is of much less importance than the HLA antigens is the ABO
antigens. This is because, in mixed leukocyte cultures, ABO incompatibility does not cause
stimulation. However, they are still important since ABO incompatibility can cause acute rejection
of grafts with primary blood supply such as the kidney and the heart. This is mainly due to the high
degree of expression ABO blood group antigens in internal organs. Secondly, antibodies to the blood
group antigens are present and pre–formed in mismatched recipients. However, there have been
advances in medicine that have prevented rejection of the grafts by suppressing the immune system.
These have made it possible for organ transplants to be performed across ... Show more content on
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The serum is tested for the possible presence of antibodies to either the ABO antigens or the HLA
antigens. The presence of antibodies has been known to cause hyperacute renal graft rejection. As
such, a positive serologic crossmatch contraindicates renal transplantation (Chinen & Buckley
2012). However, there are strategies being used in case the mismatch is unavoidable. This includes
techniques such as plasmapheresis. The degree of HLA matching is directly related to the possibility
of long–term survival.
Mechanisms of Graft Rejection Both cellular and humoral immunity is involved in the response to
the graft. The main cells involved in the rejection of grafts are the T cells. First, the hosts' CD4 and
CD8 T cells recognize antigens on the donor cells through their T–cell receptors. The T–cell
receptor interacts with the antigens presented by the MHC molecules and the interaction between
the ligand and receptor on the surface of the T–cell lead to the recognition of an antigen. There are a
number of factors such as peripheral tolerance which ensure that these complexes are not recognized
by the immune system of the host. As a result, the host does not have an autoimmune reaction.
Alternatively, the T cells of the host may identify the MHC molecules of the graft on the graft or
donor organ cell. The MHC molecule and allo–peptide appear similar in shape to the molecules and
peptides of the donor by the host T cells. As a result, the tissue of the donor is recognized

Bio 312 Immunology Final F16
BIO 312 Immunology Final F16 1. What protein/antigen marker would someone use for flow
cytometry /FACS analysis to sort out hematopoietic stem cells? The best protein to use is CD34
because it is present on all human hematopoietic stem cells, anti–CD34 monoclonal antibodies are
often used to separate the hematopoietic stem cells from other bone marrow cells. 2. B–cells and T–
cells both have to perform a few "quality control" checks to ensure that a functional cell is produced.
Describe in detail the way either a B or T cell does this. In B–cells the quality control checks are
done with a surrogate light chain to make sure that the heavy chain is functional. During the pro–B–
cell stage the heavy chain assembles with the surrogate light chain and Igβ. If it is successful, then it
shows it forms a functional pre–B–cell and signals to shut down gene rearrangement at the heavy
chain. If it cannot do that then the cell will not get the signal to survive and it will die. Next the B–
cell generates a light chain gene diversity in pre–B–cells then is checked for its functional B–cell
receptor. Without functional B–cell receptor it will not get the signal to survive and will die. 3. What
scenario might prompt a B–cell to undergo apoptosis? The first scenario that will prompt a B–cell to
undergo apoptosis is during development in the bone marrow. Either no pre–B–cell receptor or no
B–cell receptor functioning the cell will undergo apoptosis because it does not get the signal to

The Purpose Of Art And Its Felicity
Joseph Anton Koch The purpose of art and its felicity lies both in its aesthetic quality as well is the
instructive capacity of art, wherein the various perspectives employed by artist 's help to understand
the particular period in which the work was created and the influences that may have attributed to
the final product. The early 19th century in Europe was marked by a desire to return to the
classicism of the Greek and Roman empires as it connoted a sense of stability after the upheaval of
the French revolution which had brought down existing social, political and economic structures to
an end. The work ofJoseph Anton Koch, a German painter who chose to live in Rome and imbibe
the traditions of the classicists shows in his work a clear attachment to the values of linear
composition and idyllic subject matter and this is clearly apparent in his monumental workHeroic
Landscape with Rainbow, now a part of the European gallery at the Metropolitan Museum of Arts in
New York City.This work is an apt illustration of the manner in which the neoclassical tradition of
landscape painting became an important part of the works of European painters of the early 19th
century as a means of portraying the kind of society which people aspired to after the upheavals of
the late 18th century. The heroic landscape as a painting genre had achieved great popularity in the
17th century when artists like Nicholas Poussin and Claude Lorrain captured the beauty of the
natural environment as a

Biol 537 Immunology Research Paper
Molly Fields
Qing Deng
BIOL 537 Immunology
Term Paper
Due: April 16, 2015
Immunopathogenesis of 'Vyloria'
When a virus invades the human body there is an assortment of responses from the immune system
relying largely on the particular pathogen type. Viruses invade the host with the purpose of
replication to ensure survival. My cytosolic virus is a single stranded RNA virus. The virus is
surrounded by an envelope with a lipid membrane. Inside the envelope are matrix proteins,
integrase, protease, reverse transcriptase and the RNA genome. All viruses contain three proteins
necessary for their survival; one for replication, one for packaging and delivering it to more host
cells and a protein that modifies the function or structure of the host ... Show more content on
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They go through negative selection after V(D)J recombination where the self–reacting cells are
eliminated. Positive selection is in the periphery and where B cells become mature B–cells. Unlike
T–cells, B–cells also go through hypermuation and class switching in the lymph nodes after they are
activated. This helps them be more specific for antigens. B–cells either proliferate into memory B–
cells or plasma cells that secrete antibodies. Antibodies opsonize, neutralize or fight by complement
fixation against the virus. The memory cells are used if an infection of the same virus occurs

Different Pathways Of Allorecognation : Direct, Indirect,...
There are three pathways of allorecognation: direct, indirect, and linked pathways. The difference of
direct and indirect pathways is the work of dendritic cells in presenting the donor peptides as foreign
antigens. In direct pathway, the dendritic cells migrate directly from the graft into the recipient's
lymph nodes and present the antigen to their own MHC to T cell receptor (TCR). This will excite an
anti–donor T–cell allorecognition response and lead to rejection. Both CD4+ and CD8+ are capable
for this. Conversely, in indirect pathway, the dendritic cells migrate to the graft, take and process
some proteins from the recipient cells and present it on MCH to T cells in lymph nodes. While,
linked allorecognation is by using direct transfer of cell membrane from donor dendritic cells to
recipient dendritic cells.3,4 (Figure 2) There are six MHC class I isotypes: HLA–A, HLA–B, HLA–
C, HLA–E, HLA–F, and HLA–G while for MHC class II : HLA–DM, HLA–DO, HLA–DP, HLA–
DQ, and HLA–DR. As the fact that every single person has different type of HLA and may be
provided as a foreign antigen in other individual, HLA take significant role on the rejection response
in organ transplantation.1,2 Chronic Rejection in Organ Transplantation Chronic rejection is
characterized as a slow process of a tissue replacement in allograft into fibrous scar tissue as
fibroproliferative changes by some immune (antigen–dependet) and non immune factors (antigen–
independent).4 Chronic Rejection may takes

Alzheimer 's Disease Detected By Alzheimer Mouse Models
Alzheimer's disease Detected in an Earlier Stage
The biological field is in constant investigation and there are new findings all the time. Science is so
exciting that writers, educators and publishers want to make it available and understandable to
everyone. Being this the case, people generate easy accessible websites with the intention to inspire
others to acquire knowledge of what's new in science, so they include the new findings, most of the
time from journal reports of PhD students or a team of researchers have done. An example of these
types of websites is "iflscience.com," where I found an article called "Destruction of Brain Cell
Connections May Be the Earliest Indicator of Alzheimer's" about a new discover that could help in
the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The topics include: Alzheimer's disease and what provokes it, amyloid–beta proteins, synapses,
synaptic pruning, neurons, cognitive and microglial cells. Alzheimer's disease affects mostly
individuals in their mid–60s and is "a type of dementia that causes problems with memory, thinking
and behavior" (Alzheimer 's Association). The articles reflect the discovery of the Alzheimer's
disease affects the brain by the destruction of the connection of the brain cells which causes damage
in neurons and accelerate cognitive decline, and occasionally call it the earliest stage. Amyloid–beta
is a term that refers to the plaques made by the proteins which interferes and cause the loss of
synapses also known as synaptic pruning is the loss of connections between neurons caused
microglia, that according with The Campbell Biology In Focus textbook, "microglia are immune
cells that protect against pathogens" (Campbell.) The authors of the research support "microglia that
prune excess synapses in development are inappropriately activated and mediate synapse loss in
Alzheimer's disease." (Taub, 2016)
The prior terms explain what happen with the brain in that early stage, that after this research, it is
able to identify. The researchers describe in the journal article the use of C1q, "the initiating protein
of the classical complement cascade, is increased and associated with synapses before overt plaque
deposition" (Hong et al, 2016). Incorporation of

Eukaryotic Chemotaxis Lab Report
Delving into the Process of Eukaryotic Chemotaxis The mechanism in which cells move either
towards, or away from a stimulus is referred to as chemotaxis (1). Chemotaxis is initiated in
eukaryotic cells when the cells first sense an external chemotactic gradient (2). The presence of this
gradient is sensed by a class of receptors, called 7–transmembrane heterotrimeric G–protein coupled
receptors (GPCRs) (2). As the name implies, these proteins are located in the plasma membrane of
eukaryotic cells. This external gradient triggers an intracellular Phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)–
trisphosphate (PIP3) gradient to form (2). PIP3 is a phospholipid that is located in the plasma
membrane of eukaryotic cells (3). This PIP3 gradient induces a signaling ... Show more content on
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Motility is present even in the absence of a stimulus, if the organism contains flagella or
pseudopodia (14). However, if the cells are exposed to a gradient of chemoattractant or
chemorepellent, their motility is biased toward or away from higher concentrations of that stimulus
(14). When Dictyostelium are exposed to various cAMP concentrations, more pseudopodia are
formed and are extended towards the areas of high cAMP concentrations (14). This process is
mirrored by neutrophils, which extend pseudopodia rhythmically towards positive chemotactic
stimuli

Complement System Vs Lectin Pathway
The complement system is a part of the immune system that is established in the blood and
functions to keep the body healthy. The complement system consists of more than thirty proteins
that flow throughout the blood and attack bacteria, viruses, and any foreign invader found
throughout the body. More specifically, the complement system helps pathogen cells commit
apoptosis, have inflammation, lyse, and opsonization. There are nine major complement proteins,
which are C1–C9, that act a little different in each of the three pathways: the alternative, classical,
and the lectin complement pathway. The difference between the lectin and the classical pathway is
that in the lectin pathway, C1q is not involved but instead a mannan binding protein ... Show more
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These include medications that help to slow the breakdown of the red blood cell which is the most
effective treatment of PNH. Bone marrow transplantations are another method for treating PNH.
The least effective treatment is the monitoring of the red blood cells without taking any medication
or having transfusions. However, when Soliris, a complement inhibitor, and vitamin supplements are
taken, the breakdown of red blood cells in PNH is greatly reduced. Side effects of using this drug
include bright light sensitivity, a burning pain when you excrete urine, nausea, vomiting, a high
fever with flu like symptoms, back or neck stiffness, headaches, purple spots on the skin, and a
possibility of a seizure. Soliris falls in a group of medication called monoclonal antibodies which are
antibodies that are identical clones of the parent cells made by immune cells. Soliris blocks the
actions of the immune system that helps to destroy red blood cells causing PNH. Although
medications may seem to be the best idea, a person may also try to undergo a blood transfusion as
well as take natural supplements such as folic acid and iron in order to prevent anemia while also
taking blood thinners to help prevent

Innate And The Immune System
In this essay the link between the two different parts of the immune system should be explained. The
immune system consists of the innate immune system on the one hand and the adaptive immune
system on the other. The innate system reacts fast and protects the body through barriers or special
cells, but the specificity of this system is very low. Contrary to the innate system acts the adaptive
system. It is needed if the innate system fails and therefore takes more time to get activated, but its
specificity is very high. This essay should describe, how these two systems work together and how
they are linked up to each other.
The immune system consists of two parts, the innate and the adaptive part. The biggest difference is,
that the adaptive immune system is very specific for certain pathogens, and it has the ability to
remember. That means, that the adaptive immune system gets better after each infection with the
same pathogen. (Roitt, et al., 1996)
The first contact from a pathogen with the body is always with the innate immune system. It is here
to prevent the body from an infection through pathogens and it forms the first defense line. The
innate immune system consists of physical barriers like the skin, proteins like the complement and
certain cells, primarily leucocytes. The two main ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They are located in areas, where antigens can enter the body, for example in the epithelium of the
skin or the gastrointestinal tract. Dendritic cells catch antigens and transport them to the lymph
nodes. There parts of these antigens are presented to the T lymphocytes, which then recognize the
antigen. When antigens get through the epithelium, they are engulfed by macrophages, which are
located in the tissue, and presented to the T cells. If pathogens get into lymphoid organs, they will
also be captured by either dendritic cells or macrophages and presented to the T

Mental Disorders: The Causes Of Schizophrenia
Introduction
Schizophrenia is a psychiatric disorder that affects about 1% of the adult population and carries a
high disease burden involving a number of health comorbidities and an average decrease in life
expectancy by 12–15 years. Current drug treatments for schizophrenia primarily target the positive
symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions, but usually fail to treat negative symptoms such as
social withdrawal, difficulty focusing, and lack of motivation. A major research challenge is to better
understand the causes of schizophrenia so that more effective prevention and treatment plans can be
developed.
Twin studies have demonstrated that schizophrenia risk has a large genetic component, comprising
of both common single nucleotide ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
First, it exists in two isoforms, C4A and C4B, which differ by four amino acids located close
together in exon 26. Although the two isoforms share over 99% sequence identity, they differ
markedly in covalent binding affinities, hemolytic activities, and serological activities. Second, C4
exists in two lengths, the long form C4L (20.6 kb) and the short form C4S (14.2 kb). C4L contains a
6 kb endogenous retroviral (HERV–K) sequence integrated into intron 9 that is absent in C4S. Third,
the different types of C4 (AL, AS, BL, and BS) can be found in different copy numbers, usually
combining for a total of 2–6 copies of C4 per diploid genome. Duplication of the C4 gene is
modular and involves the partial duplication of a gene complex RCCX, which is comprised of RP2
(partial gene fragment), C4 (functional), CYP21A (pseudogene) or CYP21B (functional), and
TNXA (partial gene

Essay
Assignment topic: Liver Regeneration
Submitted To : Dr.Samina By: Razia Saleem Quaid – e – Azam University Dept : Animal Sciences
MSc 2nd Semester
Index Page # 1. Introduction ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Structure :
Lobes of liver :
Traditional gross anatomy divided the liver into four lobes based on surface features. The falciform
ligament is visible on the front (anterior side) of the liver. This divides the liver into a left
anatomical lobe, and a right anatomical lobe.
If the liver is flipped over, to look at it from behind (the visceral surface), there are two additional
lobes between the right and left. These are the caudate lobe (the more superior) and the quadrate
lobe (the more inferior).
From behind, the lobes are divided up by the ligamentum venosum and ligamentum teres (anything
left of these is the left lobe), the transverse fissur (or porta hepatis) divides the caudate from the
quadrate lobe, and the right sagittal fossa, which the inferior vena cava runs over, separates these
two lobes from the right lobe.
Each of the lobes is made up of lobules; a vein goes from the centre, which then joins to the hepatic
vein to carry blood out from the liver.
Cell types present in liver:
Two major types of cells populate the liver lobes: parenchymal and non–parenchymal cells. 80% of
the liver volume is occupied by parenchymal cells commonly referred to as hepatocytes. Non–
parenchymal cells constitute 40% of the total number of liver cells but only 6.5% of its volume.
Sinusoidal endothelial cells, kupffer cells and hepatic stellate cells are some of the

Gene And Microglia Mediate Early Synapse Loss Essay
In the primary research article given to us titled "Complement and microglia mediate early synapse
loss in Alzheimer mouse models" it talks about a study about the causes of Alzheimer's disease in
mice. Alzheimer's is believed to be caused by multiple factors. One of these are called complement
proteins. According to the University of Washington, they are a group of around 20 different
proteins that assist with fighting infections. Complement proteins are found in our blood and they
assist in fighting infections in various ways. Some of these proteins bind to the surface of a pathogen
were antibodies are already present to make sure that the pathogen is phagocytized. Other proteins
cause histamines to be released or act as a signal to draw phagocytes to the pathogens. According to
the National Center for Biotechnology Information, C3 is a type of complement protein that is vital
to the activation of the entire complement system. C1q is another complement protein that it is a
piece of the classical pathway for the activation of the complement system. According to the The
Green Lab at the University of California Irvine, macroglia are the immune cells of the central
nervous system. Their functions include removing bacteria and unwanted materials from the brain.
In order to combat neurological damage and inflammations they have to be activated first.
According to the Alzheimer 's Association, Alzheimer's is a disease that causes a steady decline in
brain functions such as

The Structure And Function Of Endospores And Capsules Work
Bacterial endospores are highly resistant structures that can withstand many forms of treatments,
including heat and UV (Atrih & Foster, 2002), and this characteristic is facilitated by their unique
spore structure. Bacterial capsules play an important role in the virulence of bacteria for their host,
and enable bacterial cells to evade host defense mechanisms and survive hostile environments. The
structure and function of endospores and capsules work specifically to benefit the microbial cell;
furthermore, various physiological changes occur in these structures as a result of environmental
stress (Sahin, Yong, Driks, & Mahadevan, 2012). The specific mechanism of these physiological
changes, the types of environmental stresses that cause the changes, and how these correlate with
endospore and capsular structure and function are essential to the understanding of this topic.
Bacterial endospores are dormant, non–reproductive, and sometimes disease–causing cell structures
that are typically formed in Gram–positive bacteria under a process called sporulation. Endospores
exhibit high resistance to environmental stresses, and these structures are able to resist conditions
that are unfavourable to most organisms, enabling bacteria to lie dormant for extended periods of
time (hundreds to thousands of years). In addition, endospores are highly durable, as dormant spores
return to an actively growing state a process called germination) when nutrients return to their
environment.

Summary: Adaptive Immune Response
Since the universe evolved, there have been both 'good' bacteria (i.e. aid in digestion) and 'bad'
bacteria, often causing infections, disease, and even death in mammals. Therefore, unwanted
bacteria being ingested, inhaled, or penetrating a physical barrier can cause multiple issues for that
animal. Once the bacteria have penetrated the body's first line of defenses, like entering through a
cut for example, there are multiple responses from the body to repel this foreign organism and signal
that there is an issue. From this, the rest of the body can work to destroy the bacteria with the innate
and adaptive immune response while it also develops memory and defenses against any future
invasions of that species. As bacteria contacts the first ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As B Cells also work as antigen–presenting cells, the B Cells endocytose the antigens and present it
on MHC Class II receptors (without digesting it first) to TH–Cells (Kurosaki et al. 2015), however
this promotes proliferation and differentiation of B Cells into plasma cells or memory cells
(Kurosaki, Kometani & Ise 2015): see Figure 3. Plasma B Cells produce antibodies
(immunoglobulins) that bind to the antigen epitope on that specific bacteria (Gonda 2015) and target
it for destruction, attracting phagocytic cells (macrophages) and can activate the complement system
(Gonda 2015). As there is a constant stream of billions of antibodies being created against various
things, only around 1% of antibodies are specific to that one antigen (Stafford& Johnston 2014). The
complement pathway (although considered part of innate immunity, its interconnected with all of the
immune response (Sarma & Ward 2011)) has three pathways: classical, alternative, and lectin, which
all essentially cleaves inactive zymogene proteins, activating them and converging at the formation
of the protein C3 (Sarma & Ward 2011); seen in Figure 2. This ultimately results in the membrane
attack complex which drills a 'pore' into the cell membrane of the bacteria and causes osmotic cell
lysis (Sarma & Ward 2011). However, C3b coats the bacteria and makes it more 'attractive' to
phagocytic cells (known as opsonization),

Response To Infection Paper
Response to infections
The body responds differently to an infection, depending on whether it is a virus or a bacterial
infection. Generally, viruses are considered to be more dangerous, but aside from generalities, there
are also pathophysiological differences in the ways in which both viruses and bacteria (invasive
organisms) infect human beings (hosts). When a virus is the agent that is infecting the host, the goal
of the virus is to invade on a cellular level and replicate itself. "Once inside, the cells of the immune
system cannot 'see' the virus and therefore do not know that the host cell is infected. To overcome
this, cells employ a system that allows them to show other cells what is inside them" (Immune,
2015). The virus then uses the cell in order to make proteins and replicate itself, further
compromising the immune system. The immune ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Instead of being recognized and attacked by T cells, bacteria are recognized and attacked by
complement proteins. "Complement proteins assist in bacterial killing via three pathways, the
classical complement pathway, the alternative complement pathway or the lectin pathway. The first
steps of the classical complement pathway require the binding of antibodies to the surface of the
target bacterium" (Immune, 2016). At this point, the antibodies are handled by protein complexes
which bind to the surface of the invader (much the same as the process of T cells in viruses). In
other words, the body goes through a similar reaction of identifying and then attempting to destroy
the invader, including the formation of a membrane attack complex. "MAC can insert into the cell
membrane of Gram–negative, but not Gram–positive, bacteria. There, it produces pores that allow
the entry of membrane damaging molecules, such as lysozyme, and makes the bacterium susceptible
to osmotic lysis" (Immune,

Sars Coronavirus Research Paper
SARS coronavirus (SARS–CoV) currently has no cure, but with research, a possible cure and or a
vaccination can be created to prevent future outbreaks of this virus. To better understand this virus
there has been some research regarding what pathways are activated as SARS–CoV is in the human
body. There are many different types of proteins that are part of this virus; with one of the most
commonly studied proteins being structural proteins and nucleocapsid proteins. Proteins are being
modified so that the virus can "engage, modify and/ or disrupt the host cell signaling and nuclear
import machinery for the benefit of the virus replications," (Frieman, 2008). Proteins such as
structural proteins are being changed which also changes how the human body reacts to the virus, ...
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There are three different pathways that can all be activated depending on what proteins are being
activated from SARS–Cov. This virus is able to interfere with the classical complement pathway due
to the proteins. Spike protein is one of the major structural proteins that is "essential for the
interaction of the virons with host cell receptors and subsequent fusion of the viral envelop with host
cell membrane to allow infection" (Wu, 2004). The classical pathway happens when antibodies bind
with antigens, which in this case the spike proteins are attaching to the host cell and infecting the
host. The spike proteins are able to cleave and bind to other proteins, thus making it harder for the
classical pathway to go though a smooth process when the spike proteins cleaving. Another pathway
is the alternative pathway, which can be activated without

Analytic Components In Serum Lab Report
Lytic Components in Serum
INTRODUCTION
The complement system is a segment of the immune system that has the ability to help antibodies
and phagocytic cells defend organisms from pathogens. It is considered part of the innate immune
system, that is, it is not adaptable and does not change over the course of an individual's lifetime.
Nevertheless, it can be engaged by the adaptive immune system. The complement system consist of
more than 30 proteins and fragments of proteins, including serum proteins, blood proteins, and cell
membrane receptors. By hepatocytes are the synthesis of proteins and glycoproteins that are
complementary system. The activated complement system has three biochemical pathways: the
classical complement pathway, the alternative ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
On the other hand, after the inward thioester of C3 responds with a hydroxyl or amino gathering of a
particle on the surface of a phone or pathogen, the C3b that is covalently bound to the surface is
shielded from variable H–intervened inactivation. The surface–bound C3b might now join variable
B to frame C3bB. This complex in the vicinity of element D will be cut into Ba and Bb. Bb will
keep on being connected with C3b to shape C3bBb, which is the option pathway C3 convertase.
Practical
The goal is to describe the lytic process, using the activation of the alternative pathway. In the
laboratory, sheep red blood cells are used and fish cells are introduced as foreign body cells.
Complementary activities are investigated by recording the haemoglobin released from lysed
erythrocytes.
Aims
. To determine the presence of non–specific immune mechanisms in serum.
. To measure the CH50 (i.e. the concentration of serum at which 50% of cells are lysed) of sheep
erythrocytes as a result of the introduction of carp serum.
Method
1) Take 100 ul of blood and include 9.9 ml from the

Vectors, Biology And Transmission Cycles
Vectors, Biology and Transmission Cycles The dengue virus is transmitted from human to human
with a few members of Aedes Stegomyia subgenus serving as vectors, the most important one being
the Aedes aegypti mosquito as this mosquito represents the bulk of the vector transmissions of the
virus. Ae. aegypti mosquitos originate from Africa but due to human transport, they can now be
found mostly in many tropical areas around the world. These mosquitos thrive in dark, damp areas
in a tropical climate as their growth is slowed in cooler climates. Ae. aegypti have a lifespan of 10
days to 3 weeks. The following is a simple chart of the life cycle of Ae. aegypti:
http://www.denguevirusnet.com/life–cycle–of–aedes–aegypti.html Female Ae. aegypti ... Show
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Eggs can hatch within 2 days in tropical climates or up to a week in cooler climates. Larvae are very
tolerant to low nutrient sources, mainly feeding of organic particulate matter in the water. They go
through 4 instars after which they turn into pupae. They do not eat during this stage and take 2 days
to develop into adult mosquitos. Pathogenesis and Immunopathophysiology Once infected for the
first time, the host innate defences begin to work on the dengue virus by first initiating the
complement system. However, even though the complement system can inhibit the infection from
many a virus, it may have either protective or pathogenic roles against the virus depending on the
stage of infection and the host. Activation of the complement system initiates several antiviral
mechanisms including pathogen opsonisation and/or lysis, and activation of adaptive B and T cell
responses. Complement is activated through the classical, lectin and alternative pathways,
depending on specific recognition molecules. The complement cascade activates mainly to prime B
and T cells to get to work on damage control within the host. However, the pathological effects
which come from the complement system can vary in a dengue virus infection. Later during primary
infection, IgM antibodies will be produced initially in an attempt to slow down the infection and
much later on IgG antibodies specific to the specific dengue virus serotype will be deployed.

Pathogen Recognition Essay
Active innate immune response to bacterial infections
Pathogen recognition
Immunity depends on the recognition of pathogen components by innate receptors expressed on
immune and non–immune cells against microbial pathogens. Innate receptors are conserved germ–
line–encoded proteins and include TLRs (toll–like receptors), RLRs [RIG–1 like receptors (retinoic
acid–inducible gene–1)] and NLRs (nod–like receptors). Receptors recognize pathogens or
pathogen–derived products in different cellular compartments, for instance plasma membrane,
endosomes or the cytoplasm, and induce the expression of cytokines, chemokines and co–
stimulatory molecules to eliminate molecules to eliminate pathogens and instruct pathogen specific
adaptive immune response. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Complement proteins assist in bacterial killing by three pathway:
 The classical complement pathway
 The alternative complement pathway
 The lectin pathway.
The initial steps of the classical complement pathway require the binding of antibodies to the
surface of the target bacterium. The antibodies then target for one particular complement protein
complex, called as C1. This complement protein C1 binds to the tail (Fc region) of the antibody.
Once bound, C1 initiates a series of cleavage and forming of complement complexes that ends in the
binding of several complement proteins to the surface of the bacterium that forms a membrane
attack complex (MAC) or can generate opsonins that label a bacterium for destruction. MAC inserts
itself into the cell membrane of Gram–negative, but not in Gram–positive, bacteria. It then produces
pores that allow the entry of membrane damaging molecules, such as lysozyme, and makes the
bacterium susceptible to osmotic

Taking a Look at Bacterial Endospores
Bacterial endospores are highly resistant structures that can withstand many forms of treatments,
including heat and UV (Atrih & Foster, 2002), and this characteristic is facilitated by their unique
spore structure. Bacterial capsules play an important role in the virulence of bacteria for their host,
and enable bacterial cells to evade host defense mechanisms and survive hostile environments. The
structure and function of endospores and capsules work specifically to benefit the microbial cell;
furthermore, various physiological changes occur in these structures as a result of environmental
stress (Sahin, et. Al., 2012). The specific mechanism of these physiological changes, the types of
environmental stresses that cause the changes, and how these correlate with endospore and capsular
structure and function are essential to the understanding of this topic. Bacterial endospores are
dormant, non–reproductive, and sometimes disease–causing cell structures that are typically formed
in Gram–positive bacteria under a process called sporulation. Endospores exhibit high resistance to
environmental stresses, and these structures are able to resist conditions that are unfavourable to
most organisms, enabling bacteria to lie dormant for extended periods of time (hundreds to
thousands of years). In addition, endospores are highly durable, as dormant spores return to an
actively growing state a process called germination) when nutrients return to their environment.
Sporulation is

Essay On Rheumatic Fever Disease
Group A streptococcus (GAS) is an important human pathogen rank in the top ten of deadly
infectious disease around the world despite being sensitive to most antibiotics that are used
clinically. The major population will have suffered a group A streptococcus infection one time or
another with non–life threating minor complications in the presence of antibiotic therapy but in
some instances it goes on and causes several immune–mediated disorders associated with rheumatic
fever affecting a diverse set of organs and tissues including the heart, kidneys, skin, joints, and
brain. The propensity and degree to which Group A Streptococcus produces an invasive systemic
infection is interrelated to its diverse virulence factor expression, ... Show more content on
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There are fewer cases seen in countries with high economy such as western Europe and Northern
America. Uncomplicated GAS strains, those not displaying emm gene that encode for the M protein,
have an asymptomatic initial infection but more virulent strains can lead to sudden–onset fever and
inflammation of the pharynx and tonsil. Duration of a primary infection is 2–5 days irrespective of
the presence of an antibiotic therapy. However, in the case of persistent symptoms it is
recommended to perform a rapid antigen test and an inoculate a differential growth medium (Blood
Agar) with the bacterium to detect the deadly GAS Beta hemolytic pathogen as these strains can
cause systemic hemorrhage in untreated GAS pharyngeal infections. Post infectious sequelae may
occur If the GAS strain of the initial infection is positive for the virulence factor M protein resulting
in an antibody–mediated autoimmune inflammatory response. Certain self–antigens of the heart,
synovial, skin, and brain become susceptible to this autoimmune response since they have
remarkable structural and sequential homology amino acid sequence to GAS M protein. T cells
recognize epitopes in these self–antigens with equal or more priority than the M protein epitopes
(Repeat B Region). While B cells recognize homologous non–identical amino acid sequence and
epitopes. Studies have long supported the link between Acute Rheumatic Fever as an autoimmune
disease with an involvement of

Designing A Theatre Learning Guide For Medical Students
1. Introduction:
Medical education is mainly based on learning at the work place. In year 3 and year 4 students
spend 80% of their time learning in their clinical placements. In specialities like surgery and
gynaecology, theatre learning is quintessential. Often theatre is the place where students feel
uncomfortable and learning is ignored. In this assignment I set out to create a theatre learning guide
for medical students attached to the RHCN Unit.
2. Development of learning guide:
When I started developing the learning guide, I thought of the main issues and have presented them
as questions. I have then tried to answer them based on the theory and evidence to support or refute
it.
How do I adapt all learning styles in my theatre ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Considering Honey and Mumfords broader learning styles, theatres form an ideal environment for
the pragmatist and the activist. It is easy to think that theorists and reflectors will need further
involvement of the teacher. But this can be achieved simply by setting tasks that allow the student to
brush up on their abstract concepts. As most adult learners learn by constructing on existing
knowledge, tasks that brush up previously learnt concepts are very useful. Theatre environment has
the advantage of keeping all types of learners motivated and interested in learning. Various
techniques of teaching can be used ranging from live video for the visual learners, learning by doing
for the kinaesthetic learners and discussions for the auditory learners. Though some learners have a
strong preference of one over the other, I strongly believe that a combination of all learning styles is
necessary and most adult learners with average intelligence exhibit this. I enjoy theatres as I have a
strong preference to visual learning, but with abstract concepts, I like to read them on my own.
Considering Gardener's theory may be different learners like different learning for different
intelligence.
Learning styles from a learners view are useful as they understand, how best they receive the
information. It enables them to learn effectively in whatever learning situation one encounters
(smith 1982b).
What should I aim to teach in theatres?
Bloom 's taxonomy divides the

Music And Its Effect On Society
Music as life provider, never would I have suspected that music could possess a strong element in
treating the human body, despite the pure entertainment, music can give to us, it cannot compare to
how it affects people. The main reason for it would be how it is used for medical purposes, how it is
affecting us (health wise), and how it helps educationally. There are a lot of interesting aspects that
music brings and it is identified as analgesic and anxiolytic. It has been used as a therapeutic tool for
centuries and has been shown to change many areas of the brain and the body. It is natural to see
that music has the ability to affect those who listen, probably since music is an ever–changing item
that remains available to us all.
The development of music therapy became modernized in the 1950s in North America and most of
Europe; so many physicians began an approach to recognize that music causes a soothing effect on
patients, that interest was formed when music was acknowledged as a healing influence throughout
the early associated doctors, though it is not the kind to close wounds. An impressive profession,
clinically–based around the use of music interventions to accomplish individual goals while
remaining in a therapeutic correlation to establish total rehabilitation towards their patients. Music
therapy comes in two forms, receptive and active. The active side of music therapy involves the
therapist and the patient to actively partake in creating music with

The Causes Of Inflammation And Heart Disease
The leading cause of death for people in the United States is heart disease. Heart failure is just one
of the many conditions that underlie heart diseases. Being one of the leading causes of death; having
the knowledge on how this disease works can help researchers find a cure or new treatments to
prevent and/or treat this pathogenesis. Chronic inflammation is a condition that can lead to heart
failure. When inflammation is chronic it means that the inflammation is long–term and therefore this
condition can lead to other complications, but what causes chronic inflammation? Inflammation is a
response to a foreign pathogen in the body, but what if there is no foreign pathogen? An
autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system starts to attack the healthy ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
One of the outcomes of the complement pathway is inflammation. So, if there is an imbalance of the
components of alternative pathway when activating the complement system this will lead to chronic
inflammation, therefore, leading to heart failure. This hypothesis/theory can lead to further
investigations to see if there is a way to stop or decrease the excess of components that lead to
inflammation. The results from the author's paper were interesting because they discovered that "the
alternative pathway in heart failure is activated when the levels of enhancers and inhibitors of the
alternative pathway are altered, which would normally occur with patients with heart failure"
(Shahini, et al, 2017). This dysregulation could give rise to other complication as mentioned before
like inflammation. So, this correlation of chronic inflammation with the altered balance of enhancers
and inhibitors of the activation of the alternative pathway is what makes heart failure a progressive
disease that causes loss of cardiac function ultimately leading to

Gardner 's Respiratory Virus ( Grv )
Gardner's Respiratory Virus (GRV) is an enveloped, single–stranded RNA (ssRNA) virus that has
been shown to cause both upper and lower respiratory tract infections. This virus is an intracellular
virus capable of replicating free within the cytoplasm of host cells. Spread through small, airborne
viral droplets, GRV invades the physical barrier that is the mucosal surface lining the lungs and
respiratory tract. The cells that line this surface are mostly epithelial cells, and GRV enters these
cells by being transported across their membranes through receptor mediated endocytosis. Once
inside the host cell, GRV replicates and begins its cytopathic effects on the host cells; the infected
epithelial cells undergo structural changes that lead to irritation, inflammation, and eventual lysis
that can weaken these mucosal surfaces, making the host more susceptible to further pathogenic
attack. As with similar viruses, once the first line of defense is breached and GRV is transported into
the host cells, the immune response, involving both the innate and adaptive branches of the immune
system is initiated and attempts to remove the virus as well as prevent future infection. GRV
however, is highly evolved and possesses various evasion mechanisms that prevent the immune
system from accomplishing its job; luckily, a drug does exist to help eliminate the virus.
Expected Immune Response The innate immune response is meant to prevent further invasion and
replication of the pathogen

Tads : The Possibility Of Myth Movements
TADs are widely used for various tooth movements like mesial or distal movement, anterior
retraction or protraction, intrusion or extrusion, correction of midlines, transverse problems, open
bite or deep bite, skeletal anchorage for mandibular or maxillary advancement, and for alternate
options in surgical cases.16
MSI which comes under the category of TADs have become increasingly popular because of their
small size which facilitate ease of placement in basal jaw bones in multiple numbers.17
Literature is brimmed with the studies which distinguished different factors for the stability of the
MSI but there are few studies in the literature which they have investigated the biomarker for
implant stability. In 2007 Sari et al8 measured the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In our prospective study, PTX3 levels in PMICF were observed before and after orthodontic force
application. In the present study, PMICF sample was collected after 1 hour of MSI placement.
Following tissue damage, the inflammatory response is elicited with the aim to limit the damage or
to replace the lost or damaged tissue by regeneration or reparation.21 Since MSI placement is an
invasive procedure, it obviously stimulates the host immune system to secrete inflammatory
mediators that corresponds well with initial rise in PTX3 in the PMICF.
We intentionally delayed the loading of MSI by 3 weeks so that, inflammation caused by surgical
trauma subside. Also Wu et al22 (2009) and Deguchi et al23 (2009) had stated that damage to the
implant–bone fixture would occur if it is loaded during the first 2 weeks of healing

The Immune System: The Lectin Pathway
The immune system is the body defense mechanism against diseases. Through its different
components, the immune system can detect a wide range of microorganisms such as viruses,
parasites, bacteria and strange organisms. It has the power and the intelligence to distinguish those
microorganisms from the self–healthy tissues; recognize them and eliminate them to protect the
body from their harmful effects. However, in some instances, the immune system reacts against
self–cells as in autoimmune diseases.
An immune response is mediated by two complementary systems; innate and adaptive immunity
(Fig 1). Innate immunity is the front line of defense as it gives the immediate response against
foreign molecules, while the adaptive immune system kicks ... Show more content on
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MASP2 is essential for LP activation as it can cleave both C2 and C4 while MASP1 cannot activate
the pathway independently (Ali, Youssif M 2012) as it can only cleave C2 but not C4(Wallis,
Russell 2007).
The LP is activated in an antibody–independent manner. When the recognition molecule binds
directly to certain patterns of carbohydrate moieties found on the pathogenic cell surface (PAMPS)
(Sørensen, Rikke 2005), MASP2 is autoactivated and cleaves C4 (Gál,Péter 2009 )(Merle, Nicolas S
2015).As a result, the proteolytic cascade is initiated to form the C3 convertase (C4b2b), followed
by C5 convertase and terminated by MAC formation.
In this project, we are much interested in LP recognition molecules, specifically, CL–K1 which I
will discuss in

Sepsis Associated Encephalopathy (SAE)
Sepsis associated encephalopathy (SAE) is a complex and potentially serious consequence of sepsis
appearing in many clinical forms. SAE is no more than the manifestation of a sinister cascade of
damaging molecular interactions that can potentially lead to irreversible neurocognitive dysfunction.
The pathophysiology of SAE is unknown but recent animal studies have shed some important
information about some of the responsible molecular mechanisms and potential sites for future
interventions. These pre–clinical studies have demonstrated the role of classic inflammatory factors
that lead to blood–brain barrier dysfunction, astrocyte dysfunction, apoptosis, and neuronal death.
Further studies are warranted to enhance our understanding of the process ... Show more content on
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The sepsis induced by fecal peritonitis leads to the development of edema around the microvessels
of frontal cortex in a rat model of sepsis. The results suggest that the edema observed around the
microvessels can have a role in the pathogenesis of the SAE probably by affecting the exchange of
oxygen and nutrients with carbon dioxide and waste products between the blood and brain
parenchyma (73). Perimicrovascular edema together with intact tight junctions has previously been
reported in a pig model of sepsis (74). Further studies are warranted not only for understanding the
development of perimicrovascular edema associated with peritoneal sepsis in this model, but also
for setting targets for the design of novel drugs to treat perivascular edema and

The Environments and Contaminants
Introduction:
Our environment contains countless contaminants such as bacteria, toxins, virus and parasites, many
of which pose a direct threat to the wellbeing of the host. As such, multicellular organisms have
evolved specific mechanisms to protect from the extensive threats that would otherwise cause
disease and possibly death. The most basic and primordial defense mechanism employed by such
hosts is that of antimicrobial peptides
(AMP) that possess the ability to preferentially bind to and destroy foreign pathogens.
AMPs are observed in eukaryote organisms lacking immune complexity such as plants and
invertebrates all the way up to mammals that have a highly evolved and specialized immune system
with memory1. These AMPs function in innate host defense and localize to mucosal surfaces that
are in direct contact with the environment, such as the skin and intestine. In humans there exist three
classes of AMPs each with various biochemical properties: defensins, cathelicidins and histatins. All
AMPs are analogous in their small size (less then 50 amino acids) and potential for altering/
destabilizing the membrane of foreign threats. Herein, the functional role in immunity of two classes
of AMP, defensins and cathelicidin, will be discussed in humans.
Defensins:
Defensins are 3.5–5kDa microbicidal peptides that have arginine and lysine as the predominant
cationic residues leading to a net positive charge of the peptide (Figure 1)2.
In humans defensins are

The Role Of Cytokines On Immune Privilege
THE ROLE OF CYTOKINES IN MAINTAINING IMMUNE PRIVILEGE IN THE BRAIN
Review By Ifunanya Ezechukwu
1. Introduction
Immune privilege sites are regions of the body which are able to tolerate the introduction of foreign
antigens without producing an inflammatory response [1]. It is an active process and these sites are
believed to have emerged in order to protect susceptible parts of the body which aren't able to
regenerate their tissues and have crucial bodily functions [2].Most likely, inflammation in such body
parts could lead to a total loss of function. The type of segregation of immunologically privileged
sites from the rest of the body's immune system can lead to them becoming targets of autoimmune
diseases. Immune privilege can be innate, as well as acquired. The feedback from the innate section
serves as the first line of defence, and it comprises of a stable connection of resident specialized
cells (e.g. astrocytes, microglia etc). These cells encompass the tissues they protect with elongated
processes that are sensitive to any changes in that particular environment [27]. The second form of
defence is acquired, handled by particular groups of T–cells which able to cross the protective
barriers of the tissues. There is an active rejection of cells by CD4 T–cells, even when the cell may
display harmful antigens [3], because T–cells become pathogenic if they begin to recognise local

Functions Of The Complement System
Complement system
Introduction
Functions of the complement system
Complement activation
Mechanism of action
Regulation
Associated Disorders
Measurement
Chronic inflammation
Introduction:
Complement system is a part of the innate immunity that functions to identify foreign materials;
pathogens, apoptotic cells and cellular debris and induce immune response to eliminate these
materials. It is composed of plasma and membranous proteins that complement antibody mediated
immunity through activation by three pathways. Complement proteins C1–9 are named after C as
complement and numbers as the order of activation except that C4 is activated before C2.
Complement proteins are cleaved into smaller segment and a larger segment; e.g. C3 is cleaved in to
C3a and C3b respectively.
Functions of the complement system:
C1a and C5a are potent inflammatory mediators and antimicrobial activity. They are called
anaphlatoxins because of their role in vasodilation, smooth muscle contraction, increasing vascular
permeability, activating mast cells, endothelial cells and macrophages as well as they act as
chemotactic factors to direct immune cells and hematopoietic stem cells to the site of inflammation.
Hematopoietic stem cells have a major role in regulating the inflammatory response, regeneration of
tissues and limitation of fibrosis in the damaged tissue. Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor–
1, interlukin–6 and TNF–alpha are all released by complement activation leading to

Microbiology Class At City College Of San Francisco Essay
Luz Trigueros Microbiology 12 Research paper A clinical situation was presented to the
Microbiology class at city college of San Francisco to be ran along the medical team at Zuckerberg
San Francisco general hospital. There are approximately 40 patients that are presenting with a
visible skin infection, and all have similar (If not exact) manifestations of symptoms. The patients
do not seem to be responding to the current antimicrobial therapy that has been prescribed by the
doctors. The team is now getting ready to discuss further treatment plans to provide the patients with
further information. The team has now come up with a hypothesis on to why the treatment has not
responded to the patients' symptoms. The patients may not be responding to the current
antimicrobial treatment that was prescribed because the microbes causing a skin infection developed
resistance to the antimicrobial drugs. This can be due to mutations and transfer of genetic materials
that the microorganisms have developed causing resistance to the antimicrobial drugs. The team
goes on to discuss the hypothesis and process in which a microbial resistance may have been
created. Microbiota can be defined as a collection or a community of microbes. There are times
where the term ' microbiome' is used to address all microbes in a community or to refer to the full
collection of genes of all the microbes in a community. Now a days, the communities of microbes
are supported in particular parts of human

Function And Behavior Of The Protein Immunoglobulin Essay
Immunoglobulin (Ig) or Antibody (AB) is a protein that is in the shape of a Y that is produced by
plasma cells and use by the immune system. These proteins are then utilized to identify and attack
bacteria and viruses. Immunoglobulin is clearly a very important protein in our human bodies as
well as being very integral to our survival and our ability to fend off foreign molecules. This has
lead to a lot of deep research regarding this protein. By knowing the proteins exact structure and
functions there will be a larger understanding of how our bodies actually work and how we can
improve our health to live longer and better lives. This is exactly what will be looked at throughout
this paper, the research, structure, function and behavior of the protein Immunoglobulin (Ig).
Immunoglobulins are also known as antibodies and they are glycoproteins that are produced by
plasma cells. These antibodies are the line of defence against foreign particles such as viruses and
bacteria in our human bodies. This is why so much research has been conducted to gain more
understanding and knowledge on this protein. The more we know the behavior, structure and
function of this protein, the more doors will be open in the field of medicine in fighting off these
foreign particles. The interesting aspect of immunoglobulins is that they specifically bind to specific
antigens to fight them off such as a specific bacteria or virus, so the specificity of these proteins is
very interesting and complex

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) is a family of autosomal recessive disorders caused by
impairment of biosynthesis of cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens. More than 85–90% of CAH is
due to 21–hydroxylase deficiency. This is due to the defect in 2 genes–CYP21P and CYP21. 90% of
the mutated forms causing 21–hydroxylase deficiency and they all recombination between CYP21
and CYP21P. Clinically they all are divided into two forms deficiency are described– the classical
form, which is subdivided into simple virilising form and salt–wasting form and non–classical form.
Treatment includes the glut corticoid treatment with mineral corticoid or without mineralocorticoid
and salt replacement. This review will focus on the basic etiology, epidemiology, pathogenesis,
clinical manifestations, laboratory findings, treatment and prognosis of congenital adrenal
hyperplasia due to 21–hydroxylase deficiency.
Introduction
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH), a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by
enzyme defects in the pathways of steroid biosynthesis involved in the formation of cortisol,
aldosterone and androgens. 21–Hydroxylase (21–OH) is the most common of the enzymatic
deficicient being found in 94% of cases, which is formed due to mutation of 21–hydroxylase gene
CYP21A2. Categorizations lead to two forms severe form or ... Show more content on
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17–hydroxyprogesterone levels should not be maintained in one way of treatment, since the doses of
glucocorticoid that may cause Cushing's syndrome. Rather, 17– hydroxyprogesterone levels should
be partially suppressed to the range of 90 to 1000 mg per deciliter (4 to 33 nmol per liter). only in
Androstenedione and testosterone levels are very important in prepubertal children Pubertal
development should be monitored by regular periodic charts, Radiographs shows skeletal
maturations of the hand and wrist for bone

Innate Immunity : An Early Phase Of Defence Mechanism...
1.1 Innate immunity
The innate immunity provides an early phase of defence mechanism against intruding
microorganisms, mediated by phagocytes such as macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs), having the
ability to distinguish between self and non–self (pathogens). The innate immune system recognises
microorganisms by germ–line encoded pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), expressed on all types
of cells. The metabolic products generated by microbial pathogens rather than the host allow the
immune system to differentiate between the self and non–self. The pattern recognition receptors
function to identify the molecule elements on microbes, which are acknowledged as pathogen–
associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). The elements of microbes that ... Show more content on
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Microbial products initiate Toll–like receptors (TLRs), which in turn activate the signalling
pathways, causing antimicrobial genes and inflammatory cytokine induction (Janeway and
Medzhitov, 2002). The TLR subfamily TLR1, TLR2, and TLR6 recognise lipids where as TLR7,
TLR8, TLR9 recognise nucleic acids. TLRs are expressed on DCs, macrophages, T cells, B cells,
epithelial cells and fibroblast cells, to modulate a response to pathogens and cytokines. The TIR
domain of TLR involved in the interaction of TLRs and adaptor proteins such as MyD88, TRIF,
TRAM, and TIRAP/MAL, regulate TLR signalling. This leads to the downstream signalling cascade
of the adaptor molecules (Figure 2), stimulating proinflammatory cytokines, chemokine's and types
I and type III interferons. The adaptive immune response is also activated by antigen presenting
cells (APCs), which present antigens to naïve CD4+ T cells. The naïve CD4+ T cells can be
differentiated by DCs, into T helper 1 (Th1) cells, which generate interferon–y (IFN–Y) for the
elimination of infected cells (Akira, Uematsu and Takeuchi, 2006) .
Figure 1: Toll like receptor and NOD like receptor family of ligands, involved in innate immunity.
11 TLRs have been identified in humans and 13 in mice. The innate immune system can
differentiate different types of pathogens to induce the correct flow of effector adaptive response, as
a result of TLRs that

Parasites: T. Cruzi
Parasites are organisms found in almost every niche and some species have evolved to the point of
developing characteristics for intracellular survival, which is the case of the parasite Trypanosoma
cruzi that causes Chagas disease. T. cruzi is transmitted to the vertebrate host through the feces of
triatomine bugs in which the infective forms, metacyclic trypomastigotes, are inoculated after the
insect bite. The establishment of T. cruzi infection depends on a number of factors that begins with
the invasion of host cells, which mobilizes various effector mechanisms of the immune system, such
as the activation of factors related to innate immunity and acquired immunity. This research paper
aims to answer what are the types of immune response used by the infected host during the
developmental stages of the parasite, as well as what are the possible evasion mechanisms used by
the T. cruzi that allows its survival in a hostile environment created by the response of the host
immune system.
American trypanosomiasis or Chagas disease was discovered by the Brazilian physician Carlos R. J.
Chagas in 1909. Chagas disease is caused by the flagellated protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, which is
mostly transmitted during a meal blood of blood‑sucking triatomine insects (kissing bugs).
Triatomine insects have wide variety of hosts such as skunks, dogs, cats, armadillos, goats, sheep,
which serve as a reservoir of the disease (Nouvellet et al. 2013). Inside of the triatomine insects
occurs the

The 's Immune System Of Relapsing Fever Borrelia Species
Body
Multiphasic Antigenic Variation
The antibody response to large numbers of spirochetes circulating in the blood during relapsing
fever applies a powerful selective pressure on the population of bacteria. These pathogens have
responded to the host's immune system with the tactic of multiphasic antigenic variation, whereby a
clonal population of the bacteria has a repertoire of three or more immunodominant antigens (in the
form of variable membrane lipoproteins) that they can display during the course of infection (Craig
& Scherf, 2003). In fact, antigenic variation is the best–known immune evasion strategy of relapsing
fever Borrelia species (Grosskinsky et al., 2009). The variable membrane lipoproteins are divided
between two different ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The variable membrane proteins of B. recurrentis are key virulence factors. Further understanding of
these proteins may aid in the development of new therapeutic approaches for these debilitating
inflammatory conditions.
HcpA, inhibitor of the alternative pathway of complement activation
The potential to undergo antigenic variation is a key virulence factor of B. recurrentis. However, for
survival in the blood during the early phase of infection and for persistence in human tissues,
spirochetes must be endowed with robust tools to escape innate immunity. The complement system
is part of the innate immune system primarily responsible for enhancing the ability of antibodies and
phagocytic cells to clear microbes and damaged cells from an organism. The alternative pathway is
one of three biochemical pathways which activate the complement system. The pathway is triggered
when the C3b complement protein – produced by the spontaneous hydrolysis of C3 in the blood
plasma – binds directly to a microbe. Since C3b is both free and abundant in the plasma, it can bind
either a host cell or a pathogen surface. To prevent complement activation from proceeding on a host
cell, there exist several kinds of regulatory proteins that serve to disrupt the complementation
activation process. One such protein is Complement Factor H (CFH), which can inhibit the
formation of the C3 convertase by competing with factor B for binding to C3b (Conrad, 1978),
accelerate the decay of

C-Reactive Protein Research Paper
C– Reactive protein (CRP) is a protein found in the plasma that is released when tissue damage,
infection or inflammation occurs within the body.1 C–Reactive Protein, a member of the pentraxin
family of proteins is comprised of 206 amino acids folded into two antiparallel beta sheets with a
flattened jellyroll topology. Within the interior portion of the protomer, there is a cleft that is formed
which at one end contains the C1q and FcR binding sites and at the other end are Ca2+ ion and PCh
(Phospocholine) responsible for the binding ligands. This structural orientation of sites and ions
allows the protomer to have two faces, the recognition face with the PCh binding sites and an
effector face with the C1q and FcR binding sites. (Volankavis)2 ... Show more content on
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Simvastatin, a member of the hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase or statin family has
been shown to reduce the amount of inflammation in the arteries associated with atherosclerosis and
other cardiovascular diseases presumably by lowering the LDL levels utilized for oxidative
metabolism. It has also been proposed that statin therapy could help to decrease the production and
circulation of the mediators that induce CRP production such as tumor–necrosis factor–α or IL–6.7
A cyclooxygenase inhibitor used in the treatment of cardiovascular problems, namely aspirin has
also been found to reduce CRP levels by preventing the cell activation and proliferation of cells that
trigger a CRP response in the

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