COAL BASED POWER PLANT UNIT 1 - POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
S.BALAMURUGAN - M.E
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
AAA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
UNIT 1 – COAL BASED THERMAL POWER PLANTS

VAPOUR POWER CYCLES
ME 6701 POWER PLANT ENGG. S.BALAMURUGAN AP/MECH AAACET
CARNOT CYCLE - Theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed by French
physicist Sadi Carnot in 1824
RANKINE CYCLE - Fundamental operating cycle of all power plants where an
operating fluid is continuously evaporated and condensed.
REHEAT CYCLE
REGENERATION CYCLE
BINARY VAPOUR CYCLE

REGENERATIVE CYCLE REASON

REGENERATIVE CYCLE

REHEAT CYCLE
T-S DIAGRAM OF WATER
SENSIBLE HEAT – It is the energy required to change the temperature of a
substance with no phase change.
LATENT HEAT - It is the energy absorbed by or released from a substance during a
phase change from a gas to a liquid or a solid or vice versa.
The latent heat of vaporization of water is about 2,260 J/g (100deg)
The latent heat of fusion of water is about 334 J/g (0deg)

REHEAT CYCLE

THERMAL
POWER
PLANT

INTRODUCTION
A Thermal Power Plant converts the heat energy of coal into
electrical energy. Coal is burnt in a boiler which converts water
into steam. The expansion of steam in turbine produces
mechanical power which drives the alternator coupled to the
turbine.Thermal Power Plants contribute maximum to the
generation of Power for any country . Thermal Power Plants
constitute 75.43% of the total installed captive and non-captive
power generation in India . In thermal generating stations coal,
oil, natural gas etc. are employed as primary sources of energy.

GENERAL LAYOUT OF THERMAL POWER
STATION

Diagram of a typical coal-fired thermal
power station

COAL HANDLING PLANT
•The function of coal handling plant is automatic feeding of coal to the
boiler furnace.
• A thermal power plant burns enormous amounts of coal.
•A 200MW plant may require around 2000 tons of coal daily
• Pulverizer
• Burner
• Seperator
• Drier, crusher

FUEL HANDLING SYSTEM

FUEL HANDLING SYSTEM
Coal – In plant Handling

COAL PREPARATION PLANT

MAGNETIC SEPARATOR

BUCKET ELEVATOR SCREW CONVEYOR

ASH HANDLING SYSTEM
 It is an important aspect in coal fired steam power
plant, the ash gives even up to 10-20% of the coal used
to burn.
 Tonnes of ash have to handled per day in large power
stations, needs mechanical systems.
Reasons for difficult to Handling ash
 Hot ash from furnace
 Abrasive nature, wear out the container
 dusty, irritative to handle
 Produce poisonous gas & corrosive acid when
mixed with water
 Clinker formation

ASH HANDLING SYSTEM

MECHANICAL ASH HANDLING SYSTEM

HYDRAULIC ASH HANDLING SYSTEM

PNEUMATIC ASH HANDLING SYSTEM
Steam jet System,
Horizontal distance 200m,
Vertical distance – 30 m

ASH HANDLING PLANT
The percentage of ash in coal varies from 5% in good quality
coal to about 40% in poor quality coal
Power plants generally use poor quality of coal , thus amount
of ash produced by it is pretty large
A modern 2000MW plant produces about 5000 tons of ash
daily
The stations use some conveyor arrangement to carry ash to
dump sites directly or for carrying and loading it to trucks and
wagons which transport it to the site of disposal

BOILER
• A boiler or steam generator is a closed vessel in which water under
pressure, is converted into steam.
•Always designed to absorb maximum amount of heat released in the
process of combustion.
Types of Boilers
1. Horizontal, Vertical & Inclined Boiler (Based on Axis) – Horizontal Boiler can be
easily inspected & Repaired, it occupied more space.
2. Fire tube Boiler – Hot gas inside tube, Water surrounds the tubes. (Locomotive Boiler)
3. Water tube Boiler – Water is inside the tube, Hot gases surrounds them.
4. Forced circulation Boiler – Circulation of water is done by a forced pump.
(Benson, Lamont Boiler)
5. Natural circulation Boiler – Circulation of water in the boiler takes place due to
natural convention current produced by the application of heat.
6. High Pressure Boiler – Produces steam at pressure of 80 bar & above. (Benson
Boiler, Lamont Boiler)

BOILER
SUBCRITICAL
BOILER =
ECONOMISER,
EVAPORATOR,
SUPER HEATER
SUPER CRITICAL
BOILER =
ECONOMISER,
SUPER HEATER
500MW PLANTS =
235BAR & 540 ° C

Capacity = 45-50 tonnes/h
Pressure = 130 bar
Temperature = 500° C

Capacity = 100 tonnes/h
Pressure = 140 bar

Capacity = 150 tonnes/h
Pressure = 235 bar
CRITICAL
PRESSURE
LATENT HEAT
IS ZERO
BUBBLING
FORMATION
ELIMINATED
At 225 bar,
steam &
Bubbles
have same
density

70 - 100μ

Coal Particles steadily ignited at
1700°C, leads to formation of NOx

High temperature leads to
corrosion & Erosion.
High ash content coal cannot
be used(30-35%)

FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION
90% Inert material (Sintered ash, Fused alumina, sand, Mullite & Zirconia) – Control the Bed
Temperature (800°C)
Low combustion temperature – Avoid formation of Nitric oxide & Nitrogen oxide
Cost of Crushing the fuel is reduced
Other systems unstable for over 48% of ash content, but it accepts 70% ash containing coal
Pollution is controlled & High sulphur coal is possible
Ex, 120MW plant, Savings
10% in Operation & 15% in
Capital cost.
(Particle Size = up to 12mm
70% Ash Coal)
Up to 50mm size
150 tonnes/hr
150bar, 400°C

Pressure = 10bar – High Heat Transfer Rates
Gas Velocity = B/W Bubbling Velocity of coarse particle & Terminal velocity of
Finer Particle.
PFBC = 1 m/s, ABFBC = 1.3 – 3.5 m/s

Products of combustion gives large proportion of unburned carbon particles.
10-15 times high volumetric heat releases
2-3 times higher surface heat transfer rates than conventional boiler
Compact Size

 Tuyeres - a nozzle through which air is forced into
furnace.
 The basic difference between coal and coke is that coal
is the natural source(chiefly hydrogen, with smaller
quantities of sulphur, oxygen, and nitrogen) and coke is
the derivative product produced by destructive
distillation. Both are used as fuel, but coke contains a
higher carbon content and few impurities.
Distillation is the process of
separating the components
or substances from a liquid
mixture by selective boiling
and condensation

PULVERISING PLANT
In modern thermal power plant , coal is pulverised
i.e. ground to dust like size and carried to the furnace
in a stream of hot air. Pulverising is a means of
exposing a large surface area to the action of oxygen
and consequently helping combustion.
Pulverising mills are further classified as:
1. Ball mill
2. Ball & Race mill
3. Bowl mill
4. Impact mill

14 kwh / tonnes

5 kwh / tonnes

TURBINE – FULL VIEW
• specific speed value for a turbine is the speed of a geometrically similar turbine
which would produce unit power (one kilowatt) under unit head (one meter).
• The specific speed of a turbine is given by the manufacturer (along with other
ratings) and will always refer to the point of maximum efficiency.

COMPOUNDING OF TURBINES
 The method in which energy from steam is extracted in more than
single stage is called Compounding. A multi-stage turbine i.e having
more than one set of rotors and nozzles is called compounded turbine.
 The steam produced in the boiler has sufficiently high enthalpy
when superheated.
 In all turbines the blade velocity is directly proportional to the velocity
of the steam passing over the blade.
 if the entire energy of the steam is extracted in one stage, i.e. if the
steam is expanded from the boiler pressure to the condenser pressure
in a single stage, then its velocity will be very high. Hence the velocity
of the rotor (to which the blades are keyed) can reach to about 30,000
rpm, which is pretty high for practical uses because of very high
vibration. Moreover at such high speeds the centrifugal forces are
immense, which can damage the structure. Hence, compounding is
needed.
 The high velocity which is used for impulse turbine just strikes on
single ring of rotor that cause wastage of steam ranges 10% to 12%. To
overcome the wastage of steam compounding of steam turbine is used.

GOVERNING OF STEAM TURBINES
 Steam Turbine Governing is the procedure of
monitoring and controlling the flow rate of
steam into the turbine with the objective of
maintaining its speed of rotation as constant.
The flow rate of steam is monitored and
controlled by interposing valves between the
boiler and the turbine.

THROTTLE GOVERNING
The pressure of steam is reduced at the turbine entry thereby decreasing the
availability of energy.
In this method steam is passed through a restricted passage thereby
reducing its pressure across the governing valve.
The flow rate is controlled using a partially opened steam control valve. The
reduction in pressure leads to a throttling process(h1=h2, h=u + Pv) in which
the enthalpy of steam remains constant.

 In nozzle governing the flow rate of steam is regulated by
opening and shutting of sets of nozzles rather than regulating
its pressure.
 In actual turbine, nozzle governing is applied only to the first
stage whereas the subsequent stages remain unaffected.
 No regulation to the pressure is applied, the advantage of this
method lies in the exploitation of full boiler pressure and
temperature.
NOZZLE GOVERNING

 When the turbine is overloaded for short durations. During
such operation, bypass valves are opened and fresh steam is
introduced into the later stages of the turbine. This generates
more energy to satisfy the increased load.
BY-PASS GOVERNING

DRAUGHT SYSTEM
• The circulation of air is caused by a difference in pressure, known as
Draught.
• Draught is a differential pressure b/w atmosphere and inside the boiler.
• It is necessary to cause the flow of gases through boiler setting.
Functions
To supply sufficient quantity of air through the furnace for
complete combustion
To remove the gaseous products of combustion from the furnace
To move and exhaust the product of combustion to the atmosphere
through the chimney
1. Natural draft - Through Chimney
2. Mechanical draft
a) Forced draught
b) Induced draught
c) Balanced draught

NATURAL DRAFT - THROUGH CHIMNEY
ΔP = g H ( ρa – ρg )
ΔP – draught or pressure difference, Pa
g – Acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
H – Chimney height, m
ρa – Density of atmosphere air, kg/m3
ρg – Density of gas inside the chimney, kg/m3
10-20 mm of water
30-350 mm of water

POSITIVE DRAUGHT

Limitations of Forced & Induced draught system overcome by this system
(Inspection situation)

COOLING TOWERS AND PONDS
o A condenser needs huge quantity of water to condense the steam .
o Most plants use a closed cooling system where warm water coming from
condenser is cooled and reused
oSmall plants use spray ponds and medium and large plants use cooling towers.
oCooling tower is a steel or concrete hyperbolic structure having a reservoir at the
base for storage of cooled water
oHeight of the cooling tower may be 150 m or so and diameter at the base is 150 m

Main Features of Cooling Towers
• Frame and casing: support exterior enclosures
• Fill: facilitate heat transfer by maximizing water / air
contact
- Splash fill - Film fill
• Cold water basin: receives water at bottom of tower

81
• Drift eliminators: capture droplets in air stream
• Air inlet: entry point of air
• Louvers: equalize air flow into the fill and retain water within tower
• Nozzles: spray water to wet the fill
• Fans: deliver air flow in the tower
Components of a cooling tower

• Hot air moves through
tower
• Fresh cool air is drawn
into the tower from
bottom
• No fan required
• Concrete tower <200 m
• Used for large heat duties
• Large fans to force air
through circulated water
• Water falls over fill surfaces:
maximum heat transfer
• Cooling rates depend on
many parameters
• Large range of capacities
• Can be grouped, e.g. 8-cell
tower
Types of Cooling Towers
NATURAL DRAFT COOLING TOWERS MECHANICAL DRAFT COOLING TOWERS

83
Natural Draft Cooling Towers
Cross flow
• Air drawn across
falling water
• Fill located
outside tower
Counter flow
• Air drawn up
through falling
water
• Fill located
inside tower

Three types
• Forced draft
• Induced draft cross flow
• Induced draft counter flow
Mechanical Draft Cooling Towers

• Air blown through
tower by centrifugal
fan at air inlet
• Advantages: suited for
high air resistance &
fans are relatively quiet
• Disadvantages:
recirculation due to
high air-entry and low
air-exit velocities
Forced Draft Cooling Towers

• Two types
• Cross flow
• Counter flow
• Advantage: less recirculation than forced draft towers
• Disadvantage: fans and motor drive mechanism
require weather-proofing
Induced Draft Cooling Towers

• Hot water enters at the top
• Air enters at bottom and exits at top
• Uses forced and induced draft fans
Induced Draft Counter Flow CT

• Water enters top and passes over fill
• Air enters on one side or opposite sides
• Induced draft fan draws air across fill
Induced Draft Cross Flow CT

Binary Vapour Cycle - Mercury
Mercury, Diphenyl ether, Aluminium Bromide & Ammonium Chloride – High Critical Temperature &
Low critical pressure.
At 12 Bar, saturation temp of water is 187°C, for Mercury 550°C
Mercury – At 21 bar - 589°C
Saturation Temperature at Atmospheric pressure is 357°C, can’t use mercury alone, so we
go for Binary Cycle
Topping Cycle – High Temperature Cycle
Bottoming Cycle – Low Temperature Cycle

FEED WATER TREATMENT
 RawWater contains dissolved salts, Un dissolved salts or Suspended impurities.
 It is necessary to remove harmful salts dissolved in the water.
 Need for FeedWaterTreatment
 Scaling on inside wall of different heat exchangers due to deposition of
salts
 Suspended impurities create more pressure in the boiler leads to
explosion
 Dissolved salts react with boiler & tubes, there by corrode the surface
 Corrosion damage the turbine blades.
Define PH. Why high pH value is preferred to prevent the corrosion? (Apr 15)
pH(Potential of Hydrogen). It is a measure of acidity or alkalinity of water soluble
substances. pH value ( 1-14, 7-Neutral point, 1-most acidic, 14-most alkaline.
Metals typically develop a passive layer in moderately alkaline (high pH) solutions,
which lowers the corrosion rate as compared to acidic.

REVERSE OSMOSIS PLANT
The plant basically consists of two phases. The first phase is a pre treatment
plant.
 Filtration and coagulation removes the solids and suspended particles.
 Chlorination and other chemicals removes the biological organisms.
 Chemical addition controls the pH and hardness.
Membrane Filtration
 The second phase is the membrane filtration. Sea water at high pressure is
pumped to the filters. Each of the filter consists of a special membrane wrapped
around an inner tube. The pressure forces the water molecules through the
membranes to the inner tube. A 60 % yield of fresh water is possible in RO
systems. The remaining sea water carries away the collected salts and is
returned back into the sea. Increasing the number of filter modules increases
the capacity of the plant.

NaOCL – To kill algae & Bacteria, otherwise it may harm Multi Grade Filter(MGF)
MGF - To remove the large size suspended particles by using stones
Acid = water mix with 3 chemicals, HCL – Remove irons by dissolving it,
NaOH – Remove Acidic Salt, NaOCL – To kill algae & Bacteria
Ultra Filtration Unit - Very small suspended particles are removed & then send to RO Feed
tank.
Dosing System = Anti Scaling Agent – Reacts with chemicals to form Scale inside the
channel
SMBS (sodium meta bi-sulphate) [Na2S2O5] - To remove excess
HCL – pH Controlling chlorine Around 6 pH
Degasser – Tower to remove carbonate ions by forming Cabon di oxide, Water from
top & Air is Blown from bottom, Mixed bed in DM Plant

Demineralization Plant
Function – To remove dissolved salts by Ion Exchange Method (Chemical Method)
Salts which make water Hard – Chloride, carbonates, Bi-carbonates, Silicates & Phosphates of
Sodium, Potassium, iron, calcium & Magnesium
Cation Exchange Resin – NaCl + RSO3H= RSO3
- Na+ + HCL (RSO3H – Sulfonic Acid)
H2SO4, H2CO3 are also produced, Removed Na+, Water Become Acidic
Anion Exchange Resin - HCL + R4NOH = H2O (R4NOH - ammonium
hydroxide)
Removed CL- , Acidity is avoided
Mixed Bed Resins – To remove ions, (Na+ SO3
- )
Degasser – Tower to remove carbonate ions by forming Cabon di oxide, Water from top & Air is
Blown from bottom.
H2CO3 = H2O + CO2 , CO2 free to mix with air Carbonic Acid H2CO3

DUST COLLECTOR SYSTEM -CYCLONE SEPERATOR
• Cyclone separators or simply cyclones are separation
devices that use the principle of inertia to remove particulate
matter from flue gases.
• Cyclone separators is one of many air pollution control
devices known as pre cleaners since they generally remove
larger pieces of particulate matter.
• Cyclone separators work much like a centrifuge, but with a
continuous feed of dirty air. In a cyclone separator, dirty flue
gas is fed into a chamber. The inside of the chamber creates
a spiral vortex.
• The lighter components of this gas have less inertia, so it is
easier for them to be influenced by the vortex and travel up
it. Contrarily, larger components of particulate matter have
more inertia and are not as easily influenced by the vortex.

ELECTRO STATIC PRECIPITATOR
 The medium between the electrodes is air, and due to the high negativity of negative
electrodes, there may be a corona discharge surround the negative electrode rods or
wire mesh. The air molecules in the field between the electrodes become ionized, and
hence there will be plenty of free electrons and ions in the space
 The flue gases enter into the electrostatic precipitator, dust particles in the gases
collide with the free electrons available in the medium between the electrodes and the
free electrons will be attached to the dust particles.

 As a result, the dust particles become negatively charged. Then these negatively charged
particles will be attracted due to electrostatic force of the positive plates.
 Consequently, the charged dust particles move towards the positive plates and deposited on
positive plates. Here, the extra electron from the dust particles will be removed on positive
plates, and the particles then fall due to gravitational force.
 We call the positive plates as collecting plates. The flue gases after travelling through the
electrostatic precipitator become almost free from ash particles and ultimately get
discharged to the atmosphere through the chimney
ELECTRO STATIC PRECIPITATOR

PRINCIPLE OF CONDENSATION
 In order to attain maximum work,
according to Carnot principle, the
heat must be supplied at
Maximum pressure and
temperature, it should be rejected
at Minimum pressure and
temperature.
 to maintain a low back pressure
on the exhaust side of the turbine
so that efficiency increased.
 efficiency = T1/T2

ELEMENTS OF CONDENSING PLANT
 CONDENSER: In which the
exhaust steam of the turbine
is condensed by circulating
cooling water.
 CONDENSATE
EXTRACTION PUMP: to
remove the condensate from
the condenser and feed it into
the hot-well. The feed water
from hot-well is further
pumped to boiler.

ELEMENTS OF CONDENSING PLANT
 COOLING TOWER:
1. The Ferro concrete made
device (hyperbolic shape)
in which the hot water
from the condenser is
cooled by rejecting heat to
current of air passing in
the counter direction.
2. Ring throughs are placed
8-10m above the ground
level.

COMPARISION
Jet condensers
1. Steam and water comes in direct
contact.
2. Condensation is due to mixing of
coolant.
3. Condensate is not fit for use as
boiler feed until the treated cooling
water is supplied.
4. It is cheap. Does not affect plant
efficiency.
5. Maintenance cost is low.
6. Vacuum created is up to 600 mm of
Hg.{1bar=760mm of Hg}
Surface condensers
Steam and water does not come in direct
contact.
Condensation is due to heat transfer by
conduction and convection.
Condensate is fit for reuse as boiler feed.
It is costly. Improves the plant efficiency.
Maintenance cost is high.
Vacuum created is up to 730 mm of Hg.

LOW LEVEL PARALLEL FLOW JET INJECTOR
 The mixture of
condensate, coolant and
air are extracted with
the help of wet air pump.
 Vacuum created in the
condenser limits up to
600 mm of Hg.

HIGH LEVEL JET CONEDNSER/
BAROMETRIC JET CONDENSER
 It is also called
Barometric jet condenser
since it is placed above
the atmospheric pressure
equivalent to 10.33 m of
water pressure.
 Condensate extraction
pump is not required
because tail pipe has
incorporated in place of
it.ME 6701 POWER PLANT ENGG. S.BALAMURUGAN AP/MECH AAACET

EJECTOR JET CONDENSER
 The cooling water enters
the top of the condenser
at least under a head of
6m of water pressure
with the help of
centrifugal pump.
 This system is simple,
reliable and cheap.
 Disadvantage of mixing
of condensate with the
coolant.

SURFACE CONDENSERS ARE OF TWO TYPES
 SURFACE
CONDENSERS
In this steam flows
outside the network of
tubes and water flows
inside the tubes.
 EVAPORATIVE
CONDENSERS
In this condenser shell is
omitted. The steam
passes through
condenser tubes, the
water is sprayed while
the air passes upward
outside the tube.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURFACE CONDENSERS
 The number of water
passes:
1. Single pass
2. Multipass
 The direction of
condensate flow and
tube arrangement:
1. Down flow condenser
2. Central flow condenser

DOUBLE PASS SURFACE CONDENSER
 It consist of air tight cast
iron cylindrical shell.
 If cooling water is
impure, condenser tubes
are made up of red brass.

DOWN FLOW SURFACE CONDENSER
 This condenser employs two
separate pumps for the
extraction of condensate and the
air.
 Baffles(flow directing vane) are
provided so that the air is cooled
to the minimum temperature
before it is extracted.
 The specific volume of cooled air
reduces, thereby, reduces the
pump capacity to about 50%.
Therefore, it also reduces the
energy consumption fro running
the air pump.ME 6701 POWER PLANT ENGG. S.BALAMURUGAN AP/MECH AAACET

CENTRAL FLOW SURFACE CONDENSER
 Air extraction pump is
located at the centre of
the condenser tubes.
 Condensate is extracted
from the bottom of the
condenser with the help
of condensate extraction
pump.
 Provides the better
contact of steam.

EVAPORATIVE CONDENSER
 The exhaust steam is passed through
the series of gilled tubes called
condenser coils.
 Thin film of cooling water trickles
over these tubes continuously from
water nozzles.
 During the condensation of steam,
this thin film of water is evaporated
and the remainder water is collected
in the water tank.
 The condensate is extracted with the
help of wet air pump.
 The air passing over the tubes
carries the evaporated water in the
form of vapour and it is removed
with the help of induced draft fan
installed at the top.

MERITS AND DEMERITS OF SURFACE CONDENSERS
 MERITS
1. No mixing of cooling water
and steam, hence the
condensate directly pumped
into the boiler.
2. Any kind of feed water can
be used.
3. Develops high vacuum,
therefore suitable for large
power plants.
4. System is more efficient.
 DEMERITS
1. Require large quantity of
cooling water.
2. System is complicated, costly
and requires high
maintenance cost.
3. Require large floor space
since it is bulky.

REQUIREMENTS OF A MODERN SURFACE CONDENSER
 The exhaust steam entering the condenser should be evenly distributed
over the whole cooling surface of the condenser vessel with minimum
pressure loss.
 The amount of cooling water being circulated in the surface condenser
should be regulated that the temperature of cooling water leaving the
condenser is equivalent to saturation temperature of steam
corresponding to steam pressure.
This will prevent under cooling of condensate.
 The deposition of dirt on the outer surface of tubes in surface
condensers need to be prevented.
Passing the cooling water through the tubes and allowing the steam to
flow over the tubes makes this happen.
 There should be no leakage of air into the condenser because presence
of air destroys the vacuum in the condenser and thus reduces the work
obtained per kg of steam. If there is any leakage of air into the
condenser air extraction pump need to be used to remove air as soon as
possible.

STEAM RATE
The capacity of the plant is expressed in terms of steam
rate or Specific Steam Consumption(SSC).
Rate of steam flow required to produce unit shaft output.
Steam rate = mass of steam/work output in kg/k.Wh
Steam rate = 3600.ms / WT
Ms – steam flow rate in kg/s
WT – turbine work, kW

HEAT RATE
 It is defined as the heat input needed to produce
one unit of power output
 It indicates the amount required to generate one
unit electricity
 Heat rate = heat supplied / work output
 Heat rate = 3600.Q1 / WT
 Q- Kg/s
 W-Kw

Reason out why cogeneration is quite viable in sugar industries compared to that
in other industries. (Nov 17)
Sugar production is a major Agro-Based industry in India. It generates various
solid wastes sugar cane trash, bagasse; press mud & bagasse fly ash.
Bagasse is a fibrous residue obtained after juice extraction which contains 45-
50% moisture & 1% ash. Its calorific value is 8022 KJ/kg. It is commonly used as a fuel
in boilers to generate steam & electricity through cogeneration.

COAL BASED POWER PLANT UNIT 1 - POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

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