2. Design
• a set of instructions for the researcher; to gather
and analyze data in certain ways that will control
who and what are to be studied (Brink).
• Thus, the choice of design is made
when the question is finalized.
4. Research Design
• refers to a scheme or plan of action for meeting
the objectives
• a blueprint for conducting a study
that maximizes control over factors that could
interfere with the validity of the findings.
• the researcher’s plan
– how the study will be conducted,
– type of data that will be collected, and
– the means to be used to obtain these data, (which are
determined after variables are identified and quantified.)
5. Research Design
• Purpose
– to provide a plan in answering research question.
• Each design has its own applicability depending
on the problems and objectives of the study.
• Important consideration
– to minimize possible errors and maximize the
reliability and validity of data.
7. Reliability
• refers to the consistency, stability, or
dependability of the data.
• A research method should yield the same
results, even if conducted twice or more
8. Validity
• refers to data that are not only reliable but
also true and accurate.
• It refers to which extent an instrument is
able to actually measure what it is
supposed to measure.
10. Threats to Validity
1. History
2. Selection
3. Testing
4. Instrumentation
5. Maturation
6. Mortality
11. Threats to Validity
1. History
• Refers to the events that may occur during the
time frame of the study which are not actually
part of the study.
• They produce effects that influence the results
of the study, either increasing or decreasing
the expected results.
12. Threats to Validity
2. Selection
– Occurs when respondents of the study are
chosen not only individually but as a group.
13. Threats to Validity
1. Testing
• refers to the pre-test given that results in an improved
performance in the post-test.
• To avoid this threat, a pre-test may not be needed for
administration.
• However, if a pre-test is given, another
measure is recommended to use an as an alternate
form of instrument.
14. Threats to Validity
4.Instrumentation
• It refers to unreliability in measuring instruments
that may result to an invalid measurement of
performance.
• The change in instrument used between the
pre-test and post-test may result in an effect not
caused by a treatment introduced
15. Threats to Validity
1. Maturation
• This factor refers to the physiologic and
psychologic changes that may happen to the
respondents of the study over a period of time.
• If the time frame of a training program is quite long and
rigid, the participants may experience some
psychological discomfort due to boredom, tiredness,
hunger and the like.
16. Threats to Validity
6. Mortality
• It refers to loss of participants during the post-test stage or
even during the implementation of the time frame of the
study
• when the same group of individuals is studied over a long period of
time.
• By the time a follow-up study is conducted on the same group,
some members may have dropped out or may refuse to cooperate
further in the study.
18. Characteristics of a Research
Design
• The setting in which the research
occurs
a. Laboratory Studies
– Designed to be more highly controlled in
relation to both the environment in which the
study is conducted and the control of
extraneous and intervening variables.
19. Characteristics of a Research
Design
b. Field Studies
– occur outside laboratory setting.
– This occurs in natural settings and use a variety of
methods such as:
• field experiments,
• participant’s observations in village or hospital wards,
• interviews in the home or office,
• questionnaires,
• anything at all that does not occur in a controlled laboratory
setting.
20. Characteristics of a Research Design
2. Timing of data collection
a. Prospective or Longitudinal studies
– events that are underway or expected to
occur in the future.
b. Retrospective, ex post facto or historical studies
– have occurred in the past.
c. Cross-sectional studies
– Those in which data collection is strictly in
the present time.
21. Characteristics of a Research
Design
3. The subjects to be included in the research
• The sample size or number of subjects in the study
• The method used to collect the data
• The researcher’s plan for communicating the findings
23. Types of Basic Research Design
• Descriptive Design
• Experimental Design
• Qualitative Method
24. Types of Basic Research Design
1. Descriptive Design
• Most common method used in researches.
• used when the purpose of the study is to inquire
about the prevailing conditions of events,
objects or people.
• The method describes “what is” in relation to the
variables under consideration.
25. Types of Basic Research Design
Characteristics of Descriptive Research
1. It ascertains prevailing conditions of facts in a group or
case study.
2. It gives either a quantitative or qualitative, or both,
description of the general characteristics of the group or
case under study.
3. What caused the prevailing conditions is not
emphasized
26. Types of Basic Research Design
Characteristics of Descriptive Research
4. The study of conditions at different periods of time may be
made and the change that took place between the periods
may be evaluated for any value it gives.
5. Comparison of the characteristics of two groups may be
made to determine their similarities and differences.
6. The variables involved in the study are not usually
controlled.
7. Studies on prevailing conditions may or can be repeated for
purposes of comparison and verification.
27. Types of Descriptive Design
1. Exploratory Descriptive Design
2. Descriptive Survey Design
3. Correlational Design
4. Comparative Design
5. Case study
6. Fasibility Study
28. Types of Descriptive Design
1. Exploratory Descriptive Design
• This provides an in-depth exploration of a single
process, variables, or concept.
• The word “exploratory” indicates that not much is known
• means that a survey of the literature failed to reveal any
significant research in the area.
29. Types of Descriptive Design
2. Descriptive Survey Design
• used when you intend to gather a relatively
limited data from a relatively large number of
subjects.
• This is used to measure existing
phenomenon without inquiring into why it exists.
30. Types of Descriptive Design
3. Correlational Design
• studies the relationship of two or more variables.
• has a conceptual base and is looking for cause and
effect relationships in the results
• but can not specify the direction of the relationship
at the beginning of the study.
31. Types of Descriptive Design
4. Comparative Design
• examines and describes differences in variables in
two or more groups that occur naturally in the setting.
• specifies cause and effect at the beginning of a
study and is based on a theoretical framework.
32. Types of Descriptive Design
5. Case study
• extensive exploration of a single unit of study,
such as:
– Persons
– family groups
– communities or institutions
– very small number of subjects who are examined
intensively
33. Types of Descriptive Design
6. Feasibility Study
– study tries to determine the viability of an
undertaking or a business venture like
establishing an institution or constructing an
infrastructure.
34. 2. Experimental Design
• 1 central characteristic:
– manipulating the independent variable and
measuring the effect on the dependent variable.
• The classical experimental designs consist of the
experimental group and the control group.
35. 2. Experimental Design
• Experimental Group
– independent variable that can be manipulated
– while in the control group, the dependent variable
is measured when no alteration has been made on
the independent variable.
36. 2. Experimental Design
• Control Group
– The dependent variable is measured in the
experimental group the same way, and at the
same time, as in the control group.
37. Independent Dependent
Variable variable
Experimental Changed Measured
Group
Control Group Unchanged Measure
38. Manipulation
• Means the researcher works on the
independent variables so that some of
the subjects are affected.
• Some variables in the experiment may not
be manipulated.
39. Control
• The researcher uses one or more measures to
control the experiment, including the use of an
unmanipulated control group that is compared
with an experimental group.
40. Control
• Control is attained by:
– Allowing for no variables
– Specifying the variations to be allowed
– Distributing the variations equally
42. Types of Experimental Design
1. Pre-Experimental
• One-Shot Case Study - involves one group that
is exposed to a treatment (x) and then post-
tested (o).
• None of the threats to validity that are relevant
is controlled.
43. Types of Experimental Design
1. Pre-Experimental
• One Group Pre-Test Post-Test Design
– involves one group that is pre-tested (o), exposed to
a treatment (x), and post-tested (o).
– Although it controls several sources of validity not
controlled by one-shot case study, a number of
additional factors are relevant to this are not
controlled.
44. Types of Experimental Design
2. True-Experimental
2.1 Pre-Test Post-Test Control Group Design
• involves at least two groups,
• both of which are formed by random assignment;
• both groups are administered a pre-test of the dependent
variable,
• one group receives a new or unusual treatment and
• both groups are post-tested.
45. Types of Experimental Design
2. True-Experimental
2.2 Post-Test Only Control Group Design
– same as the pre-test post-test control group design
except that there is no pre-test;
– subject are randomly assigned to groups,
– exposed to the independent variable and
– post-tested.
46. Types of Experimental Design
2. True-Experimental
2.3 Solomon Four-Group Design
– It involves random assignment of subjects to one of
the four groups.
– Two groups are post-tested and the other two are
not;
– one of the pre-tested groups and one of the
unpre-tested groups receive the experimental
treatment.
47. Types of Experimental Design
3. Quasi-Experimental
3.1 Non-Equivalent Control Group Design
- like the pre-test post-test control group design;
- does not involve random assignment.
- The lack of random assignment adds a source of
invalidity not associated with the pre-test post-test
control group design
48. Types of Experimental Design
3. Quasi-Experimental
3.2 Time Series Analysis
- it is an elaboration of the one-group pre-test pos-test
design in which one group is:
- repeatedly pre-tested,
- exposed to a treatment, and
- Repeatedly post-tested.
49. Types of Experimental Design
3. Quasi-Experimental
3.3 Counter-Balance Design
- all groups receive all treatments but in a
different order.
- The only restriction is that the number of
groups equals the number of controlled
50. Qualitative Method
• Historical Method
– this method is past oriented
– objective is to interpret events in the light of
the present situation.
51. Qualitative Method
• Ethnographic Method
– defined as the environment or setting where the behavior
occurs (Hutchinson, 1906);
– as the larger domain of which a given phenomenon is a part
(Wards, 1900);
– as immediately relevant aspects of a situation (Miles and
Huberman, 1904);
– as lack of experience that incorporates thoughts, acts, and the
past (Kuhms and Martorana, 1902); and
– as a frame of reference that directly influences current
decision-making about specific issues (Weshmer and Carp,
1909).
52. Qualitative Method
• Phenomenological Method
- described as an approach in sociology that
is based on human character as the subject
matter of the discipline.
- It is also described as an interpretative,
intuitive, and dialectic approach.
