This document provides guidance on structural collapse management and rescue operations. It outlines procedures for various phases including pre-disaster avoidance of unengineered construction, in-disaster response, and post-disaster relief. Details are given on size-up, search and rescue stages, locating and extracting victims, safety considerations, hazards, and the roles of concerned authorities like the army, fire brigade, and NGOs in Bangladesh. Case studies from the 2005 Savar building collapse are also described.
Sachpazis Costas: Geotechnical Engineering: A student's Perspective Introduction
Structural collapse awareness hmm
1. Some measures
for Structural
Collapse
Management
Composed by
H.M.A. Mahzuz
Assistant Professor (PhD Fellow),
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Sylhet,
Bangladesh.
E-mail: mahzuz_211@ yahoo.com
4. Organizations operating at the awareness level for structural
collapse incidents shall implement procedures for the
following:
(1) Recognizing the need for structural collapse search and
rescue
(2) Identifying the resources necessary to conduct structural
collapse search and rescue operations
(3) Initiating the emergency response system for structural
collapse incidents
(4) Initiating site control and scene management
(5) Recognizing the general hazards associated with structural
collapse incidents, including the recognition of applicable
construction types and categories and the expected behaviors
of components and materials in a structural collapse
5. (6) Identifying the types of collapse patterns and potential
victim locations
(7) Recognizing the potential for secondary collapse
(8) Conducting visual and verbal searches at structural
collapse incidents, while using approved methods for the
specific type of collapse
(9) Recognizing and implementing a search and rescue/search
assessment marking system, building marking system
(structure/hazard evaluation), victim location marking system,
and structure marking system (structure identification within
a geographic area).
(10) Removing readily accessible victims from structural
collapse incidents
(11) Identifying and establishing a collapse safety zone
(12) Conducting reconnaissance (recon) of the structure(s)
and surrounding area.
6. Organizations operating at the awareness level for
confined space search and rescue incidents shall
implement procedures for the following:
(1) Recognizing the need for confined space search and rescue
(2) Initiating contact and establishing communications with victims
where possible
(3) Recognizing and identifying the hazards associated with non-entry
confined space emergencies
(4) Recognizing confined spaces
(5) Performing a non-entry retrieval
(6) Implementing the emergency response system for confined space
emergencies
(7) Implementing site control and scene management
(8) Arrangement for preliminary medication facility on-spot (if-needed).
7. Trench Rescue
(a) Employees that directly engage in trench rescue
operations shall be under the direct supervision of
person(s) with adequate training in trench and excavation
hazard recognition, equipment use and operational
techniques.
(b) Each employee in an excavation shall be protected from
cave-ins by an adequate protective system except when:
(i) Excavations are made entirely in stable rock; or
(ii) Excavations are less than four feet (1.22 meters) in
depth and
(iii) Examination of the ground by a competent person
provides no indication of further collapse.
8. Definitions
Awareness Level
Actions taken by the responders at the Awareness Level are defensive in
nature and should pose no risk, or a low level of risk to the responder.
This level represents the minimum capability of organizations that
provide response to technical rescue incidents.
Operational Level
Actions taken at the Operational Level are of limited offensive nature
and generally at a low or moderate risk to the responder. This level
represents the capability of organizations to respond to technical rescue
incidents and to identify hazards, use equipment, and apply limited
techniques to support and participate in technical rescue incidents.
9. Technical Level
Actions taken by the responders are offensive in nature and may pose a
high level of risk. This level represents the capability of organizations to
respond to technical rescue incidents, to identify hazards, use
equipment, and apply advanced techniques specified to coordinate,
perform, and supervise technical rescue incidents.
10. Survival Times
(according to Pasco Fire Department, USA)
1 hour 95%
1 Day 81%
2 Day 37%
3 Day 34%
4 Day 19%
5 Day 7%
14. Building Construction
Awareness Level = Knowledge of:
• Collapse characteristics.
• Warning signs of secondary collapse.
IN LIGHT FRAMED STRUCTURES
• Recognize how type of construction relates to resources
needed for rescue operation.
15. Building Construction
• Usually residential
homes and apartments
• Highly susceptible to
fires
• Complete Collapses
occur frequently
Look for badly cracked
walls, leaning walls,
offset of structure from
foundation, or leaning
first story.
Light Frame Building Collapse
16. Building Construction
Heavy Wall (URM) Building Collapse
• Usually one to six stories
high, residential,
commercial, industrial,
or institutional
• Principle weakness in
lateral strength
• Partial collapse is most
common
Look for loose/broken parapet
walls, connections between walls
and floor, unsupported and partially
collapsed floors
17. Building Construction
Heavy Floor Building Collapse
• Residential, commercial,
industrial
• Concrete frames up to 12
stories
• Includes concrete highway
bridges
• Weakness is poor column
reinforcement, and
connection between floor
and column
• May fail partially or
completely, and potential
laterally
18. Building Construction
Heavy Wall/Tilt-Up/Reinforced Masonry Building Collapse
• Usually one to five
stories
• Industrial/Commercial
• Weakness is between
walls and floors or
roofs. Walls fall away
from floor/roof.
Look for connection of walls
and roofs/floors, and
connection between beams and
columns
23. Structural Collapse
Rescue Size-up
• Treat Walking Wounded, DO NOT allow them to re-enter the
building
• Check immediate area for victims trapped by surface debris
• Interview occupants for last know location of victims
• DO NOT park in the Secondary Collapse Zone!!
What is considered a safe distance
from the structure?
25. Stages of Collapse Rescue Operations
Stage I Size Up and Recon
• Depending on the event can last
a few minutes to several hours
• Find out how big the
problem really is
• Organized Survey of the
damaged area
• What resources are available
• What can we do about the
problem
26. Stages of Collapse Rescue Operations
Stage I Size Up and Recon
Prioritize the Problems
The first priority is YOUR safety
The second priority is the
safety of your crew
The third priority is other
people
The fourth priority is property
conservation
27. Stages of Collapse Rescue Operations
Stage I Size Up and Recon
Establish Incident Command
• Designate a command post.
• Ensure that the CP is
located outside of the
secondary collapse zone
• Remain available by staying
in the command post
28. Stages of Collapse Rescue Operations
Stage I Size Up and Recon
Rescue and Remove Surface Victims
• 50% of all survivors are surface
victims – injured but not trapped –
Deal with them first
• Remove them from the hazards
• Keep people from entering
structures, allow structures time to
settle
• Organize spontaneous rescue teams
and direct them where they will do
the most good
29. Stages of Collapse Rescue Operations
Stage II
• Begins when rescue teams arrive
and ICS (Incident Command
System) has been established
• Use the information gathered to
search the likely survival places
• Use location methods, searching
outside by voice, listening
devices, dogs, TICs ( thermal
imagers from Channel), and fiber
optics
30. Stages of Collapse Rescue Operations
Stage II
• Search the voids as a
last resort
• Enter those voids that
have the highest
likelihood of survivors
• Shore as you go
• Monitor for hazards
• 30% of all survivors in
Structural Collapse are
involved in non-structural
entrapment
31. Be aware of -FAST VOIDS
• Fire Suppression
• Additional Collapse Potential
• Structure Type and Condition
• Trapped Victim Rescue
• Void Types & Location
• Occupancy Type & Hazards
• Immediate Utility Shutdown
• Day or Night
• Situation – Cause of Collapse
33. Stages of Collapse Rescue Operations
Stage III
• Begins after all surface
victims are removed and
cared for and those in
voids can be removed
without major debris
removal
• Selective debris removal
using heavy equipment,
trained rescue teams
working with private
contractors
• Removal of entombed
victims
34. Stages of Collapse Rescue Operations
Stage IV
• Usually begins 5-6 days
after the event
• Probability of further
survivors is minimal,
and private contractors
will usually finish clean
up
36. Locating Survivors and Victims
Hailing procedures.
Search and Listen!
Thermal Imaging
Search Camera
Confined Space
Equipment
Search Dogs
37. Search Team Tools and
Equipment
Tools for
Search Team
• Lineman’s Pliers.
• Tin Snips
• Utility Knife.
• Marking Chalk and
Lumber Crayons.
• Spray Paint.
• Flashlight and
Chemical Light sticks.
38. Recommended Marking Systems
Marking systems have been adopted by the National Urban Search and Rescue Response
System, USA to conspicuously denote information relating to the status of the structure, status
of the search, hazards in a building and status of the victims. By utilizing these marking
standards, arriving FEMA or other state structural collapse rescue resources will be able to
understand what has been search already and not have to repeat search operations.
43. Safety
Work with Special Operations
(Technical Rescue &
Hazardous Materials)
Team Leaders.
Obtain Safety Briefings before
working
• Barricade Tape use
• Collapse Zone
• Monitor Structure
• Know Warning signals
• Know your Personal Limitations
• Personal Protective Equipment
• Rehydration & Rehab
• CISD (Critical Incident Stress
Debriefing)
44. Hazards
Structural Instability
• Weakened Floors, walls, roofs,
beams and columns
• Free standing walls
• Spalling of Concrete structure,
masonry
• Shifting of debris from
aftershocks, vibrations or
secondary collapse
• Attached buildings can be an
exposure, or weakened by
collapse
45. Hazards
Overhead Hazards
• Loosened debris and
unstable building structures
overhead
• Low Hanging power lines
• Building contents that are
unstable and displaced
• Failing slings or cables while
lifting materials
46. Sharp Debris
• Broken Glass
• Jagged Metal
• Nails
• Wood Splinters
• Rough Masonry
47. Slip, Trip, Fall
• Fluids
• Water, Ice, Snow
• Sewage
• Unsure Footing
• Improper Footwear
• Sink holes/ground
depression by earth
movement
• Downed Power lines
• Open Manhole covers
48. Below - Grade
• Atmospheric changes due to
ruptured fuel, gas lines or
presence of hazardous
chemicals
• Floods
• May have caused collapse
• From ruptures water/sewage
lines
• From ground water
• Elevation differences can cause
difficult access and egress
51. • Fire, Smoke, Explosion
• Heavy Vibrations
• Inhalation Hazards
• Power Tools
• Noise
• Scene Control
52. Safety Considerations
Scene Approach
• Be Aware of Secondary
Explosive Devices
• Be Aware of Collapse area
and Secondary collapse area
• Establish Safe Zones
• Be Aware of probable
Hazardous Materials
• Utilities
• Fire Danger
53. Establish safe areas and hazard
zones
Monitor building movement
Before searching voids:
• Survey
• Stabilize
• Search
Awareness for Stress Factors
• Personnel
• Scene
Rehab
Enforce Safety
54. Safety
Personal Protective Equipment
• Full PPE including:
• Eye Protection
• Knee Pads
• Radio
• Lights
• Hand Light
• Helmet Light
• Chemical Light
56. Communications
Maintain voice contact with
rescuers
Communicate needs to team
leaders
ALL rescuers should have a
portable radio
Have pre-determined hand
signals
57. On-Site Emergency Signaling
Procedures
Emergency Signaling is used to alert on scene response personnel
of:
• Structural Instability
• Secondary Devices/Explosions
• Possible victim location
• Hazardous Material Leaks
• Other hazards that require immediate action (withdrawal,
abandonment and evacuation, etc.)
• Radio Announcement & portable Air Horn or Bull Horn Alert
Systems are most common. Vehicle mounted air horns can also
be used, if they can be heard inside of collapsed structure and
around work area.
• Accountability Systems will be used (Passports, PAR, and Roll-
Calls).
58. Structural Collapse Concerns
• Majority of victims will have injuries
from falling debris
• Most visible surface victims will
have minimal entrapment.
• Victims may have vision and
breathing difficulties from dust
exposure and impaction.
• Blast injuries may be present
(hearing!).
• Entrapped victims will need
Technical Rescue Teams.
1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake Cars crushed by collapsing brick facade
near Fifth and Townsend Streets. At this locality, five people were
killed while leaving from work. [C.E. Meyer, U.S. Geological Survey]
60. Collapses and Crime Scene
Operations
Coordination with Local Law
Enforcement (PPD, FCSO, WSP),
Federal agencies (ATF, FBI, etc), and
Medical Examiner (Coroner).
Evidence
Preservation
62. Concerned Authorities in BD
• Armed Force
• Fire brigade
• Red Cross
• Pourashavas
• Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief
• Etc.
63. Rescue Operation in Savar by Bangladesh Army
RESCUE OPERATION IN BUILDING COLLAPSE INCIDENT IN PALASHBARI,
SAVAR
1. Introduction . On 11 Apr 2005 at 0100 hours a nine stored building “Spectrum
Sweater Industries Limited” located at Palashbari, Savar collapsed resulting several
death and injury. About 175 personnel were working on night 10/11 Apr 2005. Only few
lucky survivors could escape death before the final collapse of the building. Apart from
Army many other Government and private organisation and NGOs were involved in
rescue operation.
2. Date of Troops Deployment. 11 Apr 2005.
3. Deployed Formation. Engineer Brigade and Savar Area.
4. Manpower. Approximately 570 personnel including 27 Officers which comprised of
mainly engineer personnel.
5. Equipment Used. Compressor, Electric Vibrator, Electric Cutter, crane, excavator,
dozers etc
6. Casualties. Dead – 61 and survivors – 84.
7. Task Performed by Army. Rescuing force jointly started making cavity holes at the
selected locations at the centre of the collapsed building with an aim to allow oxygen
and light to enter the bottom layers for other floors. Task performed by Army in
coordination with other civil organisations are as follows:
a. Securing the entire area.
b. Search and rescue of dead bodies without damaging them.
c. Search and rescuing injured personnel.
d. Providing med attention to injured personnel.
e. Clearing of debris of the building.
8. Date of Withdrawn. 19 Apr 2005.
Light Frame Construction Materials used for construction are generally lightweight and provide a high degree of structural flexibility to applied forces such as earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, etc. These structures are typically constructed with a skeletal structural frame system of wood or light gage steel components, which provide support to the floor or roof assemblies. Examples of this construction type are wood frame structures used for residential, multiple low rise occupancies and light commercial occupancies up to four stories in height. Light gage steel frame buildings include commercial business and light manufacturing occupancies and facilities.
Heavy Wall Construction
Materials used for construction are generally heavy and utilize an interdependent structural or monolithic system. These types of materials and their assemblies tend to make the structural system inherently rigid. This construction type usually built without a skeletal frame. It utilizes a heavy wall support and assembly system to provide for the floors and roof assemblies. Occupancies utilizing tilt-up concrete construction are typically one to three stories in height and consist of multiple monolithic concrete wall panel assemblies. They also use an interdependent girder, column, and beam system for providing lateral wall support of floor and roof assemblies. Occupancies typically include commercial, mercantile and industrial. Other examples of this type of construction include reinforced and unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings typically of low-rise construction, one to six stories in height, of any occupancy.
Heavy Floor Construction Structures of this type are built utilizing cast-in-place concrete construction consisting of flat slab panel, waffle or two-way concrete slab assemblies. Pre-tensioned or post-tensioned reinforcing steel rebar or cable systems are common components for structural integrity. The vertical supports include integrated concrete columns, concrete enclosed or steel frame, which carry the load of all floor and roof assemblies. This type includes heavy timber construction that may use steel rods for reinforcing. Examples of this type of construction include offices, schools, apartments, hospitals, parking structure and multi-purpose facilities. Common heights vary from single story to high rise structures.
Pre-Cast Construction Structures of this type are built utilizing modular pre-cast concrete components that include floors, walls, columns and other sub-components that are field connected upon placement on site. Individual concrete components utilize imbedded steel reinforcing rods and welded wire mesh for structural integrity and may have either steel beam, column or concrete framing systems utilized for the overall structural assembly and building enclosure. These structures rely on single or multi-point connections for floor and wall enclosure assembly and are a safety and operational concern during collapse operations. Examples of this type of construction include commercial, mercantile, office, and multi-use or multi-function structures including parking structures and large occupancy facilities.
Light Frame Construction Materials used for construction are generally lightweight and provide a high degree of structural flexibility to applied forces such as earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, etc. These structures are typically constructed with a skeletal structural frame system of wood or light gage steel components, which provide support to the floor or roof assemblies. Examples of this construction type are wood frame structures used for residential, multiple low rise occupancies and light commercial occupancies up to four stories in height. Light gage steel frame buildings include commercial business and light manufacturing occupancies and facilities.
Heavy Wall Construction (Unreinforced Masonry) (URM)
Materials used for construction are generally heavy and utilize an interdependent structural or monolithic system. These types of materials and their assemblies tend to make the structural system inherently rigid. This construction type usually built without a skeletal frame. It utilizes a heavy wall support and assembly system to provide for the floors and roof assemblies. Occupancies utilizing tilt-up concrete construction are typically one to three stories in height and consist of multiple monolithic concrete wall panel assemblies. They also use an interdependent girder, column, and beam system for providing lateral wall support of floor and roof assemblies. Occupancies typically include commercial, mercantile and industrial. Other examples of this type of construction include reinforced and unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings typically of low-rise construction, one to six stories in height, of any occupancy.
Heavy Floor Construction Structures of this type are built utilizing cast-in-place concrete construction consisting of flat slab panel, waffle or two-way concrete slab assemblies. Pre-tensioned or post-tensioned reinforcing steel rebar or cable systems are common components for structural integrity. The vertical supports include integrated concrete columns, concrete enclosed or steel frame, which carry the load of all floor and roof assemblies. This type includes heavy timber construction that may use steel rods for reinforcing. Examples of this type of construction include offices, schools, apartments, hospitals, parking structure and multi-purpose facilities. Common heights vary from single story to high rise structures.
Heavy Wall/Tilt-Up/Reinforced Masonry Construction Structures of this type are usually built utilizing modular pre-cast concrete components that include floors, walls, columns and other sub-components that are field connected upon placement on site. Individual concrete components utilize imbedded steel reinforcing rods and welded wire mesh for structural integrity and may have either steel beam, column or concrete framing systems utilized for the overall structural assembly and building enclosure. These structures rely on single or multi-point connections for floor and wall enclosure assembly and are a safety and operational concern during collapse operations. Examples of this type of construction include commercial, mercantile, office, and multi-use or multi-function structures including parking structures and large occupancy facilities.
Light framed construction (wood and metal) are the most common.
Engine and Truck Companies are responsible for initial actions at these structures (NFPA Standard).
Identification of SAR needs and collapse potential in Heavy Wall, Heavy Floor, and Pre-Cast construction are the responsibility of Operations level Truck Company Firefighters and the Technical Rescue Team (NFPA Standard).
Initial Structural Size-up:
Check conditions of road or ground for stability before parking apparatus.
Check for hazards from overhead utilities.
Do not park apparatus in collapse zone (commonly 1 ½ times the remaining height of the building away from the structure, evaluate and use your judgment).
Check all sides of structure for stability and other hazards.
Report conditions to all incoming units and advise of access and staging.
Lean-to A lean-to is formed when one or more of the supporting walls or floor joists breaks or separates at one end, causing one end of the floor(s) to rest on the lower floor(s). Potential areas where victims might be located are under the suspended floor and on top of the floor at the lowest level.
V-Shape A "V" is formed when heavy loads cause the floor(s) to collapse near the center. Potential areas where victims might be located are under the two suspended floor pieces and on top of the floor in the middle of the V.
A-Frame
Pancake A pancake is formed when the bearing wall(s) or column(s) fails completely and an upper floor(s) drops onto a lower floor(s), causing it to collapse in a similar manner. Potential areas where victims might be located are under floors and in voids formed by building contents and debris wedged between the floors.
Cantilever A cantilever is formed when one end of the floor(s) hangs free because one or more walls have failed and the other end of the floor(s) is still attached to the wall(s). Potential areas where victims might be located are on top of or under the floors.
Follow the three S’s: Survey … Stabilize … Search
Survey:
Check area for stability and
Secure all utilities.
Use air-monitoring devices prior to and during search operations.
Stabilize:
Ventilate as needed.
Cribbing and Shoring.
Control or divert water
Continue to monitor for signs of shifting and collapse.
Search:
Have coordinated Search operation. Poor placement of Search
teams and added weight can cause secondary collapse.
Use Search Marking system.
60% of all Confined Space (void space) deaths are to Rescuer’s!
135 Rescuers died in the Mexico City Earthquake.
65 of them Drowned!
Search Methods:
Search from perimeter of debris pile and collapsed structure
Do not walk on unstable debris, secondary collapse may be the result!
Direct all ambulatory patients to a safe triage or treatment area.
Search area in a systematic manner.
Hailing Procedures:
Position Rescuers around area to be searched.
Rescue Team Leader calls for silence and all work in area to stop.
Start calling out or tapping on some object, one at a time.
Pause and each rescuer listens for response and try to get a “fix” on location.
Any sound heard should be verified by at least one other Rescuer.
Continue procedure in a systematic rotation (clockwise, etc)
Four stages of Rescue
Stage I
Size up and Recon
Size up entire area assigned to you.
Assess Structure/Hazards
Secure Utilities if safely done
Mark Structure
Draw diagram of area surveyed
Identify entrapped victims (Utilize Search Marking System)
Provide information to appropriate Team Leader/Supervisor (ICS Designate)
Rescue and remove surface victims.
During the size up (walk-around) if possible.
From exterior of structure only.
From on top of and under exterior debris piles.
Scene organization and management
Establish/Expand the ICS as needed.
Request equipment and resources (you may know you will not get them soon, but request must be made as soon as possible!).
Identify Triage areas/Casualty Collection Point(s).
Identify staging area(s).
Stage II
Search likely survival places
After completing stage 1
Determined by type of structure, time of day, and information from survivors, neighbors, relatives, etc.
Locating methods
Hailing systems
Listening, Thermal sensing and fiber optic devices.
Trained Search and Rescue dogs
Search the Voids
Identify type of void
Identify hazards
Search in void spaces and in debris piles at lower end of spaces.
Four stages of Rescue
Stage I
Size up and Recon
Size up entire area assigned to you.
Assess Structure/Hazards
Secure Utilities if safely done
Mark Structure
Draw diagram of area surveyed
Identify entrapped victims (Utilize Search Marking System)
Provide information to appropriate Team Leader/Supervisor (ICS Designate)
Rescue and remove surface victims.
During the size up (walk-around) if possible.
From exterior of structure only.
From on top of and under exterior debris piles.
Scene organization and management
Establish/Expand the ICS as needed.
Request equipment and resources (you may know you will not get them soon, but request must be made as soon as possible!).
Identify Triage areas/Casualty Collection Point(s).
Identify staging area(s).
Stage II
Search likely survival places
After completing stage 1
Determined by type of structure, time of day, and information from survivors, neighbors, relatives, etc.
Locating methods
Hailing systems
Listening, Thermal sensing and fiber optic devices.
Trained Search and Rescue dogs
Search the Voids
Identify type of void
Identify hazards
Search in void spaces and in debris piles at lower end of spaces.
Four stages of Rescue
Stage I
Prioritization allows you to determine which problems to solve first
Four stages of Rescue
Stage I
Stage II
Search likely survival places
After completing stage 1
Determined by type of structure, time of day, and information from survivors, neighbors, relatives, etc.
Locating methods
Hailing systems
Listening, Thermal sensing and fiber optic devices.
Trained Search and Rescue dogs
Search the Voids
Identify type of void
Identify hazards
Search in void spaces and in debris piles at lower end of spaces.
Stage II
Search likely survival places
After completing stage 1
Determined by type of structure, time of day, and information from survivors, neighbors, relatives, etc.
Locating methods
Hailing systems
Listening, Thermal sensing and fiber optic devices.
Trained Search and Rescue dogs
Search the Voids
Identify type of void
Identify hazards
Search in void spaces and in debris piles at lower end of spaces.
Fast Voids is an acronym for items that should be addressed before entering any void in a building collapse. The following is an explanation of this check list of procedures.
F=Fire Suppression – Small fire can become big fires in a very short time. Remember, smoke kills
A=Additional collapse potential – Is building or its components moving? What about loose/hanging debris
S=Structure Type & Condition – Is it old, new, maintained, under construction, or demolition?
T= Trapped victim rescue – Regarding the trapped victim: is it confirmed/unconfirmed? Are the crushed, impaled, pinned, dead or alive?
V= Void Types & Locations – You need to size-up the location and number of voids
O= Occupancy type/hazards – Examples include a private dwelling vs. commercial, nursing home, etc.
I= Immediate utilities shutdown – Who Should handle this?
D= Day or night – based on occupancy type, this may give an indication of number of potential victims.
S= Situation – Cause of collapse – gas explosion, terrorist attack, etc.
Stage III
Selected debris removal
Develop a systematic plan for removing selected portions of debris
Keep number of rescue team members inside structure to a minimum
Remove debris from top and work towards the bottom
Mark debris piles that have been removed to prevent future movement
Stage IV
General Debris Removal
Probability of finding live victims is highly unlikely
Structure and debris are systematically removed with heavy equipment without regard to preference to any particular location of victims
Rubble removed from the structure must be inspected for bodies and body parts
Any bodies or body parts found must be taken to a predetermined location and identified
Stage III
Selected debris removal
Develop a systematic plan for removing selected portions of debris
Keep number of rescue team members inside structure to a minimum
Remove debris from top and work towards the bottom
Mark debris piles that have been removed to prevent future movement
Stage IV
General Debris Removal
Probability of finding live victims is highly unlikely
Structure and debris are systematically removed with heavy equipment without regard to preference to any particular location of victims
Rubble removed from the structure must be inspected for bodies and body parts
Any bodies or body parts found must be taken to a predetermined location and identified
Use all three for the most complete search
TIC’s (Thermal Imaging Cameras are invaluable when search collapsed structures. When dust and insulation cover all areas, TIC’s can assist in locating victims.
Advanced search cameras are available from the Technical Rescue Team. Specific Confined Space equipment may also be useful in void space rescue operations.
Search Dogs: It must be verified that the search dogs are of the correct type for the operation. USAR Search dogs, Wilderness Search Dogs, Cadaver Dogs, Bomb & Drug Dogs all have unique training and limitations. Search Dogs are requested through Dispatch or the EOC. Search Dogs are very useful, but USAR Search Dogs have an extended response time to our area.
Many tools on Engines, Trucks and Medic units can be utilized for initial search and rescue operations. The majority of victims are injured from falling debris and if trapped, they can be rescued by removal of surface debris.
Victims trapped by heavy debris and/or structural members require Structural Collapse Rescue Technicians. These personnel are available on the Technical Rescue Team.
Remember to use marking systems. Report, or at a minimum (during communication failure) mark, any victmis found and their condition.
As with the Structural/Hazard Marking system, orange spry paint should be used for marking. Lumber crayons or chalk should be used for additional information.
A large distinct marking will be made outside of the “Main Entrance” of each structure to be searched. This marking will be completed in two steps. First, a large (approximately 2 foot) single slash “ \ ” shall be made. Add the date/time in the top quadrant and the crew identifier in the left quadrant. After the search has been completed, a second slash “ / ” will be added to form a “ X “. Specific information will be added to all four quadrants as needed. The right quadrant is for any significant hazards found. The bottom quadrant is for the number of live or dead victims, still in the structure. Use a small x in the bottom quadrant if no victims are in the structure.
While searching inside the structure, use the same marking system room to room. Paint, Crayon or Chalk may be used. The only information added while inside the structure is any victims and hazards.
Completed secondary Searches are displayed as a circle drawn around the original search marking.
NOTE: Check on a single slash mark at the entrance to a structure, confirm the time and check on search/rescue crew. Aftershocks and secondary explosions may have compromised the interior crew.
The identity and location of individual structures is crucial at incidents involving several structures or large areas of damage. Remark street names at intersections in a visible location. Paint house numbers outside structure (in a visible location) if available.
Structure hazards identified during initial size up activities and throughout the incident should be noted. This Structure/Hazard Mark should be made on the outside of all normal entry points. Orange spray paint seems to be the most easily seen color on most backgrounds. Line marking or downward spray cans apply the best paint marks. Lumber crayons or lumber chalk should be used to mark additional information inside the search mark itself.
Make a large (2'X2') square box with orange spray paint on the outside of the main structure (at a location easily seen from the street or access point).
Put the Date, Time, Hazardous Material, and Team/Company identifier outside the box on the right hand side (use lumber crayon or chalk to write this).
Empty Box = Structure is accessible and safe for search and rescue operations
Single Slash = Structure is significantly damaged. Some areas are relatively safe, but other areas may need cribbing, shoring, or removal of falling and collapse hazards.
X Mark in Box = Structure is not safe for search and rescue operations. May be subject to sudden additional collapse. Remote search operations may proceed at significant risk. If rescue operations are undertaken, safe haven areas and rapid evacuation routes should be created
An Arrow “ “ indicates the location of the functional entrance to the building.
NOTE: Aftershocks, secondary explosions and other factors may affect the structure. Re-evaluate and paint updated markings on structure as needed. Cross out old markings.
Basic safety Considerations
Structural Collapse and US&R Operations can expose the Rescuer to multiple hazards:
Aftershocks, secondary explosions and continued extreme weather
Shifting and falling debris
Electrical shock
Fire and explosions
Hazardous materials and atmospheres
Water and sewage
Heat and cold exposure
Biohazards
Noise exposure
Physical and emotional critical incident stress.
Don’t rely on only one person for lighting – Always have a backup light source
Coordinate rescue efforts with other teams so that one team doesn’t place other team in danger
Keep team leaders advised of progress
Communications is especially important during night operations
On-Site Emergency Signaling Procedures:
Effective emergency signaling procedures are essential for the safe operation of rescue personnel operating at a disaster site. These signals must be clear and universally understood by all personnel involved in the operation. Air horns or other appropriate hailing devices shall be used to sound the appropriate signals as follows:
Cease Operation/All Quiet: 1 Long Blast (3 seconds)
verbal announcement = “Quiet!”
Evacuate the Area: 3 short blasts (1 second each)
verbal announcement = “Out, Out, Out”
Resume Operations: 1 Long and 1 Short Blast
verbal announcement = “O-Kay”
Following an Evacuation order, the Incident Commander will initiate a roll call by Division, beginning with the division most at risk.
Each Division Supervisor will account for their assigned personnel, and advise the Incident Commander.
If anyone is not accounted for, the evacuation signal will be repeated.
Note: Rapid Intervention Teams will be in a safe location and be ready to respond to the Division most at risk.
Follow MCI Protocols as needed. Multiple Triage and Treatment areas may be in use during Disasters. Coordinate location and designation of these sites within the Incident Command System.
Extended operations are common during major emergencies and disasters.
Proper illumination during low light conditions can increase efficiency of search and rescue operations and reduce the chance of injury. Use all available light sources and request lighting equipment through the Incident Command System.
It is not uncommon to have 12 hour work periods and be without outside assistance for at least 72 hours during disasters. Be prepared for disasters with a personal “72 hour” kit for yourself at work and at home for your family.
Chances of personal injury due to environmental exposure, fatigue and critical incident stress are increased during these types of events. Rehab should be ongoing and monitored within crews. Signs of fatigue and/or stress should be identified and treated immediately to reduce the chance of long term injury or disability.
Many major emergency scenes are “crime scenes”. Coordination with appropriate Law Enforcement agencies will ensure operations will consider:
Evidence preservation and procedures.
Decon with evidence collection.
Proper documentation of personal accounts and assignments during incident.