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The dark sides of leadership and loyalty ,[object Object],Exploring the Relationship Between Narcissism in Leadership and Organizational Codependency:,[object Object], A Review of the Literature,[object Object],Mary A. Ross,[object Object],Regent University,[object Object],School of Global Leadership and Entrepreneurship,[object Object],May, 2008,[object Object]
Contents,[object Object]
Introduction,[object Object],“From antiquity to the postmodern era, literature, history, and folklore…chronicle the folly of leaders who after a gain of rarified positions of power, prestige and status, topple into the abyss of failure”,[object Object],(Allen, 2006).,[object Object]
The Problem is Three-FoldFirst…,[object Object],57,000 corporate failures in 1986 (Hogan, Curphy & Hogan, 1994),[object Object],Incompetent leadership ,[object Object],Changes in Labor and Market Environments,[object Object],Majority of organizations are unhealthy (Aguirre, Howell, Kletter & Nelson, 2005),[object Object],	Exhibit behaviors that resist meaningful change,[object Object],	Inability to turn decisions into action,[object Object]
Second …,[object Object],Culture in America is collectively a culture of narcissism(Fullbright, 1966; Lasch, 1979, Wallis, 2005; de Tocqueville, 1838).. ,[object Object],and a culture marked by the dysfunction of codependency (Baker & Jones, 1996; Baker & Newport, 2003).,[object Object],Narcissism:,[object Object], “a pattern of traits and behaviors that signify infatuation and obsession with oneself to the exclusion of all others and the egotistic and ruthless pursuit of one’s gratification, dominance, and ambition” (Rapier, 2005, p. 4),[object Object],Codependency:,[object Object], “The learned habits of a dysfunctional system…compulsion to control and rescue others by fixing their problems” (Springle, 1995).,[object Object]
Third…,[object Object],Current Leadership and Organizational development research focuses on the bright side of leadership.,[object Object]
Insight,[object Object],It is from a culture of,[object Object],Narcissism & codependency,[object Object],That ,[object Object],leaders and followers,[object Object],Are drawn …,[object Object],the heart & soul of the,[object Object], American organization,[object Object]
Rationale,[object Object],Research supports a positive relationship between  leadership and organizational health (Meredith, 2007; Senge, 1990; Gini, 2004). ,[object Object],Literature supports the leader-follower relationship as a reciprocating process (Gini).,[object Object],Healthy leadership begets health in organizations (Baker & Jones, 1996).,[object Object],The processes between leader and led are determinative (Kets de Vries, 2004).,[object Object],Research posits a positive relationship between organizational health and productivity (Fordyce & Weil, 1971; Aguirre, Howell, Kletter & Neilson, 2005; Kets de Vries, 2004). ,[object Object],Individual and organizational behavior is determined by the inherent traits of an organization; behavior drives results (Aguirre, et al., 2005).,[object Object]
Purpose,[object Object],The phenomena of interest in this research are:,[object Object],The dark side of leadership,[object Object],as evidenced in the narcissistic leader; and,[object Object],The dark side of loyalty,[object Object],as evidenced in the codependent organization ,[object Object],This research explores,[object Object],the relationship between the two,[object Object],through a review of the literature.,[object Object]
Methodology,[object Object],The methodology used in this research is the Stand Alone Literature Study and Review.,[object Object],Through a process of internet and library database searches, the author has compiled a range of related and relevant works form different sources including:,[object Object],Textbooks,[object Object],Scholarly journals,[object Object],Theses,[object Object],Dissertations,[object Object],Magazines,[object Object]
Research Questions,[object Object],Do narcissistic leaders foster codependency in the organizations they lead?,[object Object],Does codependency support or enable narcissistic leadership?,[object Object],Is the narcissist-codependent relationship one of cause and effect or simply two sides of the same coin?,[object Object],What are the traits or behaviors in U.S. organizations that identify it as ‘unhealthy’? ,[object Object],Are those traits and behaviors associated with either phenomenon – narcissism or codependency?,[object Object],What are the outcomes of the narcissist/codependent relationship for the organization?,[object Object]
Narcissism in Leadership,[object Object],Healthy narcissism originates with the infant notion that one is the center of the world and that individual needs take priority over all others.,[object Object],The child matures and this notion matures into an attitude of positive self-regard and confidence.,[object Object],The gauge, however, between healthy narcissism and unhealthy narcissism is:,[object Object],The individual capacity for empathy – the ability to consider others (Goleman, 2006: Williams, 2006; Rapier, 2005).,[object Object]
Unhealthy Narcissism - Characteristics,[object Object],Infatuation and obsession with oneself,[object Object],Regular exclusion of others (unconcerned with feelings and opinions of others),[object Object],The egotistic ruthless pursuit of one’s gratification, dominance, and ambition. ,[object Object],Absence of interest in and empathy of others,[object Object],Eager to obtain admiration and approval from others. ,[object Object],Compulsive need for power,[object Object],Prone to anger and rage – “narcissistic rage”, a reaction to feelings of helplessness due to inability to control others.,[object Object],Devalues others,[object Object],Argumentative and jealous,[object Object],Note: Some amount of narcissism is normal for all leaders.,[object Object],(Rapier, 2005).,[object Object]
Rapier (2005),[object Object],Research study of 11 participants: CEO’s, chairmen, or presidents of organizations based in the U.S.,[object Object],Compare and contrast executive character and leadership style with character traits of narcissism.,[object Object],Methodology: Mixed methods of Literature review and personal interview(qualitative).,[object Object],Identified a ‘type of executive character’: charismatic, neurotic, driven, hubris, extremely expansive, dysfunctional, and narcissistic.,[object Object],An “important distinction was made between largely effective narcissistic executives who go to productive extremes and significantly flawed narcissistic executives who go to destructive extremes (p. 3). ,[object Object],Confirmed presence and “preoccupation with dreams of glory, power, status, and prestige” presenting as “…a need to create a sense of specialness …to …regulate self-esteem”(p. 128).,[object Object],Postulates “methods can be developed and cultivated to understand and diminish …nonproductive and …disruptive behaviors” resulting from narcissism (p. 1).,[object Object]
Kets de Vries (2004),[object Object],Individuals are not “just a conscious, highly-focused maximizing machine of pleasure and pains, but also a person subject to many wishes, fantasies, conflicts, defensive behaviors, and anxieties – some…beyond consciousness” (p. 184).,[object Object],Acknowledges the “plethora of highly destructive actions” of “…business and political leaders,” suggesting that “given these observations, business scholars and leaders need to revisit” questions concerning the leader as a “logical, dependable human being” (Ibid). ,[object Object],Postulates:,[object Object],That the reactive narcissistic leader is caught in a legacy of “deprivation, insecurity and inadequacy” (p. 189).,[object Object],That organizations as systems have a life of their own, both conscious and unconscious, rational and irrational.,[object Object],That organizations can be psychologically healthy or unhealthy.,[object Object],“Organizations the world over are full of people who…unable to recognize repetitive patterns in…behavior become dysfunctional…stuck in a vicious, self-destructive circle” (pp. 187-188).,[object Object]
Codependency,[object Object],Paradox: while attempting to control others and situations, the codependent is actually being controlled – gaining self-worth or significance from the approval of the dysfunctional individual or system(Springle, 1993). ,[object Object],Compulsion to control and rescue others, to ‘fix them’ and their problems.,[object Object],Occurs when the individual needs for love and security are not met.,[object Object],Three core perceptions / behaviors:,[object Object],Lack of objectivity,[object Object],Warped sense of responsibility,[object Object],Control (being controlled and controlling others),[object Object],Enablers; without them the systems supported by them are “likely to flounder and fail” (McMillan & Northern, 1995).,[object Object],They often “front for, cover up, and pick up the pieces for other members of the dysfunctional system” (Ibid). ,[object Object]
Codependency - Characteristics,[object Object],Three core perceptions / behaviors:,[object Object],Lack of objectivity,[object Object],Warped sense of responsibility,[object Object],Control (being controlled and controlling others),[object Object],Three emotional results:,[object Object],Guilt,[object Object],Loneliness (alienation/isolation),[object Object],Hurt & Anger,[object Object],Denial and secrecy (closed systems) are key to survival,[object Object]
McMillan & Northern (1995),[object Object],Mixed methods research,[object Object],Data from 7 organizations in southeast U. S. over five year period.,[object Object],Study results and/or findings:,[object Object],Posits that “Codependency” is “…the creation of unholy alliances” that distort healthy interdependence and serve to impoverish all human systems.,[object Object],That “the cultural pressures toward codependency…were consistent across groups.” ,[object Object],Organizations operate as miniature societies; argue that the influences on the culture are reflected in its human institutions.,[object Object],Codependents practiced the “art of restricted or managed communication…to suppress any message or behavior that might upset the …balance of their dysfunctional family systems”,[object Object],Creation of a ‘closed system’ – cutting off of outside influence,[object Object]
McMillan & Northern (1995)(continued),[object Object],Three primary communicative practices of codependent organizations revealed:,[object Object],Limited expression of communication,[object Object],Indirectness – to not convey true thoughts or feelings, but to communicate what they perceive is acceptable or safe,[object Object],Reactive communication  - externally referenced  communication that is nonassertive, non –confrontational.,[object Object],This study posits “the organization as the enabler of the dysfunction” of codependency and communication as the vehicle of codependency.,[object Object]
Summary of Findings,[object Object],A review of the literature suggests a possible positive relationship between Narcissism in Leadership and Organizational Codependency,[object Object]
Outcomes for the Organization,[object Object],Unhealthy organizations,[object Object],(fordyce & Weil, 1971),[object Object],Organizational codependency (McMillan & Northern, 1995),[object Object],Members operate on a superficial level – look to leaders to solve problems rather than working together,[object Object],Thoughts and opinions of the general membership are not respected by the leadership,[object Object],Personal needs and feelings are secondary,[object Object],Members compete instead of collaborating; distrust and mean-spiritedness reigns,[object Object],Members withdraw or cast blame in a crisis; conflict is covert,[object Object],Learning is difficult; feedback is avoided or not helpful,[object Object],Relationships are jeopardized by self-interests; members feel alone and lack concern for one another; undercurrent of uncertainty and fear,[object Object],Leadership tightly controls resources and processes; demands excessive justification; allows little freedom for mistakes,[object Object],Innovation is not widespread or encouraged,[object Object],Members swallow their frustrations or refuse to play an active part in rescuing the organization,[object Object],Codependents in the organization practice the art of restricted communication,[object Object],Messages that may upset the balance of the dysfunctional system are suppressed,[object Object],Fosters learning disability – inability to think and interact in ways that enhance,[object Object],Results in a ‘skilled incompetence’ fostered by the organization,[object Object],Limited expression of communication,[object Object],Indirect communication – to not convey true thoughts or feelings but to communicate what is perceived as acceptable or safe,[object Object],Reactive communication – externally referenced; non assertive; non confrontational,[object Object],Creation of a closed system, cut off from outside influence,[object Object],Culture of denial, confusion, dishonesty, self-centeredness, and perfectionism,[object Object],Creation of ‘unholy alliances’ that distort healthy interdependence,[object Object]
Implications,[object Object],There is a need for balance in the study of leadership overall; a model of leadership that examines both the bright and dark sides of leadership.,[object Object],Especially in the leader-follower relationship identified in this study: Narcissistic Leaders and Organizational Codependency.,[object Object],The current discussion of leadership tends toward the glorification of leaders.,[object Object],“It almost seems by definition that bad people cannot be good leaders [yet] …flawed leaders are everywhere” (Kellerman, 2004).,[object Object],The current romanticizing of leadership gives rise to the denial of the dark sides of leadership and loyalty.,[object Object],Understanding the dark side of leadership is the key to understanding leadership failure (Kaiser & Hogan, 2006).,[object Object]
Final Words,[object Object],America needs an intervention.,[object Object],Organizations that emerge within this culture are replete with larger-than-life narcissistic leaders addicted to power, control, admiration, and themselves. They prey on those in relationship with them as a means of satisfying their own selfish needs.,[object Object],The prevalence of codependency within this culture guarantees a supply of individuals who will enable and support the narcissist as a means of satisfying their own insecurities, drawing their significance and worth from the one on whom they are codependent.,[object Object]
Spiritual Application,[object Object],Israel’s spiritual leaders failed to lead them properly and instead led for the satisfaction of their own personal needs and the people suffered (McIntosh & Rima, 2007).,[object Object],The prophet Ezekiel delivered God’s message of judgment on one such leader:,[object Object],“Behold I am against the shepherds, and I will demand My sheep from them and make them cease from feeding sheep. So the shepherds will not feed themselves anymore, but I will deliver My flock from their mouth, so that they will not be food for them (Ezekiel 34:10).,[object Object]
References,[object Object],Allen, V. L. (2006). Moral failures of exceptional leaders: a qualitative study. Unpublished dctoral dissertation. Regent University School of Leadership Studies. Norfolk, VA.,[object Object],Baker, J. S., & Jones, M. A. (1996). The poison grapevine: how destructive are gossip and  rumor in the workplace? Human Resource Development Quarterly (Vol. 7, No. 1, Spring ,[object Object],	1996). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.,[object Object],De Toqueville, A. (2006). Democracy in American, volume 1 (of 2). The Project Gutenberg  EBook of Democracy in America. David Reed and David Widger (Eds.).  Retrieved from ,[object Object],	http://www.gutenberg.org.,[object Object],Fullbright, J. W. (1966). The arrogance of power. New York, NY: Random House.,[object Object],Goleman, D. (2006). Social intelligence: the new science of human relationships. New York, NY: Bantam Deli.,[object Object],Hogan, R, & Hogan, J. (2001, March/June). Assessing leadership: a view from the dark side. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 9, 40-51. ,[object Object],Hogan, R., Curphy, G. J., & Hogan, J. (1994). What we know about leadership: effectiveness and personality. American Psychologist. (June 1994). ,[object Object],Hogan, R. (2004). What we know about leadership. Review of General Psychology (June 2004). ,[object Object],Kaiser,R., & Hogan, R. (2006). The dark side of discretion: leader personality and  organizational decline. Retrieved March 23, 2008, from  http://www.hoganassessment.com.,[object Object],Kellerman, B. (2001). “Evil” manifested in destructive individual behavior: A senior leadership  challenge. Journal of Management Inquiry (Vol. 10, pp 221-226, 2001). ,[object Object],Kellerman, B. (2005). Bad leadership: what it is, how it happens, why it matters. Cambridge,  MA: Harvard Business School Press.,[object Object],Kets de Vries, M. (2004). Organizations on the couch: a clinical perspective on organizational dynamics. European Management Journal. (Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 183-2000, April 2004).,[object Object]
References ,[object Object],Lasch, C. (1979). The culture of narcissism: American life in an age of diminishing expectations. New York, NY: Norton.,[object Object],McIntosh, D. L., & Rima, S.D. (2007) Overcoming the dark side of leadership: how to become an effective leader by confronting potential failures. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books.,[object Object],McMillan, J. J., & Northern, N. A. (1995). Organizational codependency: the creation and maintenance of closed systems. Management Communication Quarterly (Vol. 9, No., 1, ,[object Object],	pp. 6-45, August 1995). Sage Publications, Inc.,[object Object],Rapier, M. L. (2005). An interview study of narcissistic executives: piercing the corporate veil of narcissism in the workplace. ProQuest Dissertation and Theses. (UMI No. 3212939). ,[object Object],Springle, P. (1995). Codependency: A Christian perspective. Houston, TX: Word//Rapha.,[object Object],Springle, P. (1993). Conquering codependency: A Christ-centered 12-step process. Nashville, TN: LifeWay Press.,[object Object],Wallis, J. (2005). God’s politics: A new vision for faith and politics in America. San Francisco, CA: HarperCollins.,[object Object],Williams, D. F. (2005). Toxic leadership in the U.S. army. Unpublished dissertation. U.S. Army War College. Carlisle Barracks, PA.,[object Object],© Mary A Ross 2008,[object Object]

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Narcissism and Codependency in Leader-Follower Relationship

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