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SHAKY GROUND
1.   Label a cross-section of the earth which shows its four parts.
2.   Describe the make-up of each layer.
3.   Define the meaning of the terms crust, mantle, magma, inner core, outer core.
4.   Recognise that the earth’s crust is broken up into pieces called tectonic plates.
5.   Interpret a map of the world showing the tectonic plates and be able to name the two plates on which NZ
     lies.
6.   Define the term continental drift and describe what causes this movement.
7.   Describe the original super continent and it’s two parts.
8.   Label a cross-section diagram of a volcano
4.   Define weathering and describe how the major agents of physical (mechanical) and chemical weathering
     act.
5.   Define erosion and describe how the major agents of erosion act.
6.   Recognise the four types of volcanoes: shield, cone-shaped, dome and caldera.
7.   Give the meaning of the terms: lava, vent, crater, ash, dormant, active, lahar.

13. Recognise the difference between continental and
    oceanic crust.
14. Explain how the process of subduction occurs, and how
    mid ocean ridges and trenches occur.
15. Explain what causes an earthquake.
16. Give the meaning of the terms: epicentre, focus,
    seismograph, s, and p waves, and Richter scale.
17. Recognise that most earthquake and volcanic activity is
    along plate boundaries.
18. Describe in simple terms, sedimentary, metamorphic
    and igneous rocks. Briefly describe the rock cycle.

Wednesday, 22 September 2010
2008
Specific Learning Outcome                                  Suggested Learning Activities                                       References
1. Label a cross-section of    • View the Scotch egg cross-section as an introduction to the 4 layer structure of the
   the earth that shows its      earth.
   four parts.                 • Research the earth’s structure using the internet                                       Website: “Windows to
2. Describe the make up of     • Students use the results of their research to complete the notes as a cloze exercise.   the universe”
   each layer
3. Define the meanings of
   the terms crust, mantle,
   magma, inner core and
   outer core.

4. Define weathering and       • Circus of weathering activities                                                         Slides 7 to 11 but these
   describe how the major      • View the slides which show various examples of the agents of weathering.                need further development
   agents of physical and      • Complete the summary on weathering as a cloze exercise
   chemical weathering act

5. Define erosion and          • Students read about the rock cycle and gain an appreciation of how it is instrumental   to be developed
   describe how the major        in the formation of the different types of rock
   agents of erosion act.      • Students use the URL to research the rock cycle.
                               • They work through questions on a worksheet and then
                               • When back in class they use their results to complete a summary as a cloze exercise.
                               • Complete illustrations that show erosion as weathering and transportation
                               • View slides that show real life examples of erosion

6. Label a cross-sectional     •   View and discuss the OHT on volcano formation and copy it                             Hyperlink to an animation
   diagram of a volcano        •   View animation of subduction and volcano formation.                                   (Slide 15)
                               •   Discuss the appearance of a subduction zone.
                               •   Cut and paste activity on the shield and composite cone volcano                       Cut and paste worksheet


7. Recognise the four types    •   Students answer quick questions on volcano types and subduction as a way of           Slide 17
   of volcanoes: shield,           introducing them to the different types of volcanoes.
   cone-shaped, dome and       •   Read the handout and use it to fill in the summary table                              Slide 21
   caldera.



8. Give the meaning of the     •   Read from the text and use it to write definitions for the terms on the slide         Year 10 Pathfinder p52
   terms: lava, vent,
   crater, ash, dormant,
   active, lahar.




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
2008
Specific Learning Outcome                                  Suggested Learning Activities                                           References
9.  Recognise that the         • View the map as a projection which is part of a larger web page on the whiteboard           Slide 23
    earth’s crust is broken      and study the plates. Students familiarise themselves with the terms lithosphere and
    up into pieces called        athenosphere and reinforce their understanding of the relative fluidity of these layers
    tectonic plates.           • Students cut and paste the continental plates to produce Gondwanaland. They check           Cut and paste worksheet
10. Interpret a map of the       their work against the OHT showing the broad timeline of continental drift. Note that
    world showing the            the fact that the plates fit together to form one land mass is evidence that there may
    tectonic plates and be       have been one land mass and that this has broken up into plates which have drifted
    able to name the two         over time.
    plates that New            • The mechanism of continental drift is reinforced by viewing convection currents             to be developed
    Zealand lies on.             (potassium permanganate crystals in water)
11. Define the term
    continental drift and
    describe what causes
    this movement.
12. Describe the original
    supercontinent and its
    two parts.

13. Recognise the              • Reinforcement of the mechanism of subduction and discussion leading to the formation        to be developed
    difference between           of mid ocean trenches. This leads on to the idea that the continental plate is older than
    oceanic and continental      the oceanic plate since the oceanic plate is continuously being melted and renewed.
    crusts                     • The mechanism of formation of mid ocean trenches is broken down in detail.
14. Explain how the process    • Students research the composition of the two plates
    of subduction occurs
    and how mid ocean
    ridges and trenches
    occur

15. Explain what causes an     • Students view subduction and appreciate that friction is the force that causes              To be developed from
    earthquake                   vibrations to propagate through the earth to cause an earthquake                            available resources
16. Give the meaning of the    • Carry out a reading exercise which leads to definitions of epicentre, focus etc
    terms epicentre, focus,    • study the distribution of earthquakes (see OHT) inn New Zealand and relate this to
    seismograph, s and p         subduction zone, noting that where there is no subduction (South Island) there are no
    waves and Richter scale      earthquakes.
17. Recognise that most
    earthquake and
    volcanic activity is
    along plate boundaries.




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Netbooks have been booked

      Did some work on layers and labelling.
      Took notes on composition of the layers.
      Earth's changing surface notes - plates floating.
      -> Convection current expt (tea leaves)
      Did some work on continental drift and plate tectonic theory.
      Illustrated subduction

      Quick questions (10)
      -plate movements (subduction only)
      -> volcanoes, mountains & earthquakes.
      -> watched the 1st part of the video on Mt St Helens
      -Quick questions
      -Clickview video
      --> Explain the diagram (slide)
      -Notes - mid-oceanic trenches and ridges
      tectonic plate jigsaw.
      Quick 5
      Cut and Paste Volcano
      Bridgette, Carlene, Julie-Ana & Nathan to sit the test
      Handout achievement voucher to Declan
      Introduction: “VOLCANO TYPES” -> Show the “Volcanoes presentation” (hyper linked off the slide) making it interactive
      with lots of questions and explaining what type of volcanoes these are.
      Exercise: Students copy and complete the close exercise but do questions 1,2 and 3 interactively.
      Summary: Show this slide only. Ask questions to fill in spaces
      Crossword: “THE SHAKY GROUND CROSSWORD”
      Students complete exercise "MAKING A GLOSSARY 1 - ans's only in the back of their books
      - Reading exercise: "READING ABOUT VOLCANOES"
      -> Summary: "READING ABOUT VOLCANOES"

      Quick ten
      Video: "SUPER CONTINENT" & "Pangea" from Clickview
      - Reading exercise -> Cut and paste -> answer the questions



Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Bridgette, Carlene, Julie-Ana & Nathan to sit the test
      Quick ten -> Review the Super Continents questions
      Weathering slides -> Summary


      -Starter: "What has caused the weathering" (interactive identification exercise)
      - Copy as notes: Close ex - "CRUST MOVEMENT"
      - Handout: Crusts - "oceanic & continental"


      - Making a glossary 2 (use this with the pathfinder 10 books)
      --> answers only
      ----> complete the glossary that was started in your books
      -The big shaky ground crossword


      Read p112, 113 (Y10 Pathfinder) -> answer questions on p114, 115

      Book work:
      -Read 4.13 (Reading about Science) - Rock types and the rock cycle
      -Copy all notes into books
      -Answer all the questions as full sentences.


      Start: Reinforcement exercise - Crossword puzzle - "ROCKS"
      Basic rock identification using the key from KIS book and a sample of rocks (rock kit?)

      Don't use the netbooks
      Revision questions (cloze ex. on handout) -> pasted into back of books.
      Rock interactive exercise (in slides) - not the internet.
      Rock cycle hand out in front of books


      Make a heading in the front of your book: “EARTHQUAKES”
      Read p98 and 99 in Millenium Science 2
      Under the subheading, S and P waves, describe longitudinal and transverse waves
      Read the handout, “How we learnt about the Earth’s layers” and write down two things about the Earth’s structure that
      these waves have helped scientists to learn about.
      Answer the questions at the bottom of p99 by making a sub-heading of each question and writing a few sentences under
      each sub-heading.

Wednesday, 22 September 2010
INTRODUCTION


Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Our Dynamic Earth




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THE EARTH’S
          STRUCTURE

Wednesday, 22 September 2010
LAYERS - labelling & describing

      Demo: The Scotch egg model of the earth’s structure               Imagine a Scotch egg......
        1.   (breadcrumbs)
        2.   (sausagemeat)
        3.   (egg white)
        4.   (egg yolk)


       Research - The earth’s structure    http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/Interior_Structure/
       interior.html


    Diameter = ________ km. The inner core is so ___ that it causes
    material in the outer core and ___________to move around.
                                 _____________

                                 ____________           thin silicate rock material

                                ___________
                                                       mostly solid (semi-liquid/plastic) and
                               _________               consisting of
                                                       ________ _________


                                                   liquid and consisting of
                                                   ________ & _________


                                              solid and consisting of ________ &
                                              _________
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
HOW THICK ARE YOU??



Study the diagram carefully.
It shows the earth’s layers.
The depth in kilometres of the
boundaries between layers is
shown.
1. Put the thickness of the
   layers in order from
   thickest to thinnest.
2. A calculator may help.



Thickest layer
                    ____________
                    ____________
                    ____________

Thinnest layer ____________

                                                                  Note
                     Mantle thickness = 2890 - 80 = 2820 km       Some sources of information will
ANSWERS              Outer core thickness = 5150 - 2890 = 2260 km give the outer core as being thicker
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
LAYERS - defining them

       Research - Definitions       http://mediatheek.thinkquest.nl/~ll125/en/struct.htm

        Use the URL above to match the definition with the term with the
        composition with the thickness and with the average temperature

                                                                                  Thickness Average
   Term              Definition                    Composition
                                                                                    (km)    temp (oC)
               A. The layer above    1. Iron and Nickel. Extremely hot but       (a) 2200   (i) 4500
   Inner       the core but below    the pressure is low enough to allow it
    core       the crust             to exist as a liquid.


               B. The earth’s hard 2. Compounds of silicon, iron and             (b) 15     (ii)   20
               outer shell (which magnesium
   Outer       floats on the softer                                                                to
   core        part of the mantle)
                                                                                                   870

               C. The liquid layer 3. Rocks: Basalt and Granite                  (c) 1250   (iii) 3700
               that surrounds and
  Mantle       spins around the
               inner layer


               D. The solid,         4. Iron and Nickel. Extremely hot but       (d) 2900   (iv) 2600
               innermost part of     under too much pressure to exist as a
   Crust
               the earth             liquid.

Wednesday, 22 September 2010
UN-MIXING THE TABLE

Answers              Inner core ____ ____ ____ ____
                     Outer core ____ ____ ____ ____
                     Mantle    ____ ____ ____ ____
                     Crust     ____ ____ ____ _____

Now write the correct definitions for Inner core, Outer core, Mantle and Crust in the
space provided (below):

                                   Definitions

The inner core is ______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
The outer core is ______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
The mantle is ________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
The crust is __________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

Wednesday, 22 September 2010
PLATE
                 MOVEMENT

Wednesday, 22 September 2010
CONTINENTAL DRIFT


                                            The tectonic plates that make up the lithosphere
                                            float on the magma of the mantle. Hot magma
                                            near the outer core rises up towards the crust.
                                            When it gets there it cools enough to return to the
                                            core where it can be heated again and the cycle
                                            continues. This cycle results in circular currents
                                            called convection currents. Continental drift occurs
                                            when convection currents cause the tectonic plates
                                            to move.

       Practical               MODELLING CONVECTION CURRENTS

Method                                                                               Tea
1. Set up the equipment as shown.                                xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
2. As you gently heat the beaker
   (using a blue flame) record your                    Bunsen
   observation of how the tea                          burner
   leaves move in the space below.                                                          Mat

Observation
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
TECTONIC PLATES


A closer look at the crust:




                                                                     Lithosphere
                                                                     Stiffer part of the
  Athenosphere                                                       outer mantle and crust
  Liquid part of                                                     (floats on the
  the outer mantle                                                   athenosphere)




               The lithosphere is broken up into sections called tectonic plates.
               It is these plates that can float on the athenosphere



          Clickview video: Geography > “Global tectonics, Competing theories > Tectonic
          Plate Theory”




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Oceanic   Oceanic




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
CRUST MOVEMENT

    A ________________ boundary occurs where the
    lithospheric plates move away from each other
    Divergent boundaries form ____ - _________ ridges.
    The mid - Atlantic ridge is an example of a divergent
    plate boundary.
    A _________________ boundary occurs when the
    lithospheric plates move towards each other.
                                                                        Oceanic      Oceanic
    If both plates are continental then the collision will
    result in ___________ formation.                                    Oceanic   Continental
     The Himalayan mountains are an example of a
    convergent boundary.
    When an oceanic plate moves towards a continental
    plate the heavier oceanic plate slides under the lighter
    continental plate. This is called a ____________ zone.
    A subduction zone is an area of intense activity.                             Continental
    _________, __________ eruptions and ___________
    building all take place in a subduction zone.
    The Andes is a result of subduction
                                                                        Oceanic
     Words
     volcanic, mountain, divergent, convergent, mountain, subduction,
     mid, oceanic, earthquakes,
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
CRUSTS - continental and oceanic


 Oceanic crust                                 Continental crust
 About 5 to 10 km thick                        about 30 to 70 km thick
 Consists mainly of heavy rocks like basalt    Consists mainly of lighter rocks like granite

 Density: 3g per cubic centimetre              Density: 2.8g per cubic centimetre




 Using the words “thinner, heavier, basalt and granite” describe the difference
 between the oceanic and continental crust.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
RIDGES and TRENCHES - a closer look




                                                  Trench
                Ridge                Ridge
                                                             Continental Plate

       Oceanic Plate              Oceanic Plate


                         SPREADING




                                                                SUBDUCTION



         Magma rises --> cools and expands when it contacts the
         ocean --> pushing of the oceanic plates apart --> Ridge
         formation as the magma piles up on the edge of each plate

Study the diagrams carefully and use them to write a few sentences which explain how
mid-ocean ridges and trenches are formed:
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Reading about:        THE HISTORY OF PLATE TECTONICS


Plate tectonic theory had its beginnings in 1915 when Alfred Wegener proposed his theory of "continental
drift." Wegener proposed that the continents plowed through crust of ocean basins, which would explain
why the outlines of many coastlines (like South America and Africa) look like they fit together like a
puzzle. Wegener was not the first to notice this puzzle-like fit of the continents (Magellan and other early
explorers also noticed this on their maps), but he was one of the first to realize that the Earth's surface
has changed through time, and that continents that are separated now may have been joined together at
one point in the past.

Paleontologists had also found that there were fossils of similar species found on continents that are now
separated by great geographic distance. Paleoclimate studies, which concerns examining the climate in
Earth's past, revealed that glaciers covered large areas of the world which also are now separated by
great geographic distances. These observations seemed to indicate that the Earth's lithosphere had been
moving over geologic time.

Wegener's ideas were very controversial because he didn't have an explanation for why the continents
moved, just that there was observational evidence that they had. At the time, many geologists believed
that the features of the Earth were the result of the Earth going through cycles of heating and cooling,
which causes expansion and contraction of the land masses. People who believed this were called the
anti-mobilists. The mobilists were in the opposite camp and supported Wegener's ideas, since many of
them had seen evidence for continental motion, especially in the Alps.

Although Wegener's "continental drift" theory was later disproved, it was one of the first times that the
idea of crustal movement had been introduced to the scientific community; and it laid the groundwork for
the development of modern plate tectonics. As years passed, more and more evidence was uncovered to
support the idea that the plates move constantly over geologic time.
                                                               http://scign.jpl.nasa.gov/learn/plate2.htm
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Paleomagnetic studies, which examine the Earth's past magnetic field, showed that the magnetic north
pole seemingly wandered all over the globe. This meant that either the plates were moving, or else the
north pole was. Since the north pole is essentially fixed, except during periods of magnetic reversals, this
piece of evidence strongly supports the idea of plate tectonics.

Following World War II, even more evidence was uncovered which supports the theory of plate tectonics.
In the 1960's a world-wide array of seismometers were installed to monitor nuclear testing, and these
instruments revealed a startling geological phenomenon. It showed that earthquakes, volcanoes, and
other active geologic features for the most part aligned along distinct belts around the world, and those
belts defined the edges of tectonic plates.

In addition, further paleomagnetic studies revealed a striped pattern of magnetic reversals in the crust of
the ocean basins. Basalt contains a fair amount of magnetic minerals called magnetite. When the lava
from spreading centers in the oceans forms and cools, these minerals align to the north pole. The Earth
has undegone several magnetic reversals in the past, in which the north and south poles are reversed for
a period of time. When geologists and geophysicists discovered that the crust in the ocean recorded
these reversals, it was even more positive proof that the lithosphere had to be in motion, otherwise there
would be no "stripes" of normal and reversed polarity crust.

These were some of the final pieces of the puzzle that led to the development of modern plate tectonic
theory. Since its emergence in the 1960's, plate tectonic theory has gained wide-spread acceptance as
the model of Earth processes.




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
TECTONIC PLATES - mapped out

                                                The result of the cut & paste exercise




                                     New Zealand lies on two tectonic plates.
                                     Shade each plate carefully using a different colour
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
http://www.tki.org.nz/r/science/science_is/activities/isact_plate_tectonics_02_e.php




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
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SUPER CONTINENT




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Clickview: Geography > Continental drift theory > Global tectonics: Competing theories

                                            PANGEA

     In 1915 the idea of moving continents was
     considered to be a scientific __________.
     Wegener proposed that 300 million years ago the
     earth was one giant ____________ (which was
     named Pangea)
     About 200 million years ago Pangea broke into
     two smaller continents, Gondwana and Laurasia.
     Over millions of years, Gondwana and Laurasia
     broke away into smaller continents gradually
     __________ to their present positions.
     Wegener’s theory was based on the close fit of
     the ________ and ______ ________ coastlines.
     There was also a similarity of _______, animals
     and _______ on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
     There were also similarities in the structure of the
     ____________.
     The key criticism of Wegener’s theory was that it
     was not possible to explain how the continents
     could _________ _________.
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
THE ORIGINAL SUPER CONTINENT


               Reading about it:               http://kids.earth.nasa.gov/archive/pangaea/Pangaea_game.html




180 Million Years Ago
About 180 million years ago the supercontinent Pangea began to break up. Scientists believe that Pangea broke apart for
the same reason that the plates are moving today. The movement is caused by the convection currents that roll over in the
upper zone of the mantle. This movement in the mantle causes the plates to move slowly across the surface of the Earth.
About 200 million years ago Pangaea broke into two new continents Laurasia and Gondwanaland. Laurasia was made of
the present day continents of North America (Greenland), Europe, and Asia. Gondwanaland was made of the present day
continents of Antarctica, Australia, South America. The subcontinent of India was also part of Gondwanaland. Notice that
at this time India was not connected to Asia. The huge ocean of Panthalassa remained but the Atlantic Ocean was going to
be born soon with the splitting of North America from the Eurasian Plate.
How do we know that South America was attached to Africa and not to North America 180 million years ago?

Scientists today can read the history of the rock record by studying the age and mineral content of the rocks in a certain
area.
The Triple Junction was formed because of a three-way split in the crust allowing massive lava flows. The split was
caused by an upwelling of magma that broke the crust in three directions and poured out lava over hundreds of square
miles of Africa and South America.
The rocks of the triple junction, which today is the west central portion of Africa and the east central portion of South
America, are identical matches for age and mineral make up. In other words the rocks in these areas of the two
continents were produced at the same time and in the same place. This tells us that South America and Africa were
connected at one time!
Today these two continents are separated by the Atlantic Ocean which is over 2000 miles wide!

Wednesday, 22 September 2010
135 Million Years Ago

About 135 million years ago Laurasia was still moving, and as it moved it broke up into the continents of North America,
Europe and Asia (Eurasian plate). Gondwanaland also continued to spread apart and it broke up into the continents of
Africa, Antarctica, Australia, South America, and the subcontinent of India. Arabia started to separate from Africa as the
Red Sea opened up.
The red arrows indicate the direction of the continental movements. Notice how far the Indian subcontinent has to move
to get to its present position connected to Asia.
The Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and Pacific Oceans are all beginning to take shape as the continents move toward their
present positions.
The plates are still moving today making the Atlantic Ocean larger and the Pacific Ocean smaller. The yellow arrows on
the world map indicate the direction of plates movements today.
Notice the position of the Indian Subcontinent today. It moved hundreds of miles in 135 million years at a great speed (4
inches per year!!!) The Indian plate crashed into the Eurasian plate with such speed and force that it created the tallest
mountain range on Earth, the Himalayas! What do you predict the world will look like in 100 million or 200 million
years? What new mountain ranges will form? Where will new volcanoes erupt?

The Atlantic Ocean will be much larger 50 million years from now and the Pacific Ocean will be much smaller. North and
South America will have moved farther west (California moving north) while Greenland will be located farther west but
also farther north. The western part of Africa will rotate clockwise and crash into Europe causing great mountain
building, while the far eastern region of Africa will rotate eastward toward the Arabian peninsula. Australia will move
farther north into the tropics, while New Zealand will move to the south of Australia.

All of these predictions are just that, predictions. These movements of the continents may happen if the plates continue to
move in the same direction and with the same speed as they are moving today. Scientists are not certain of the movement
today, let alone 50 million years into the future.
What do you think the world will look like in 50 million years???



Wednesday, 22 September 2010
SUPER CONTINENTS
                               1. After reading “THE
                                  ORIGINAL
                                  SUPERCONTINENT”. cut
                                  and paste these
                                  pictures into your book
                                  in chronological order.

                               2. Label your pictures with
                                  how many years ago
                                  the situation existed

                               3. Answer the questions
                                  that follow.




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Questions                      THE ORIGINAL SUPER CONTINENT

1. What is the name of the original super continent?
2. Why did this continent break up into smaller continents?
3. Describe the countries that are contained within Laurasia and Gondwanaland.
4. Explain how the triple junction was formed?
5. Describe the events that led to the formation of the triple junction.
6. What evidence do scientists have for the theory of continental drift illustrated
   by your pictures?

    Answers
1. Pangea
2. The movement was caused by convection currents that rolled over the upper zone
   of the mantle.
3. Laurasia consists of North America, Asia and Europe. Gondwanaland contains,
   South America, Africa, Arabia, Antartica, India and Australia.
4. The triple junction was caused by an upwelling of magma that caused a three way
   split in the crust. The crust split off in three different directions to form the
   continents South America, Africa/Arabia and Antarctica. The lava poured over large
   areas of Africa and America.
5. Scientists study the age and mineral content of rocks in the different continents
   and look for similarities (indicating that they could once have been part of the
   same land mass.
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
VOLCANOES


Wednesday, 22 September 2010
eChalk has some very good animations




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
INTERACTIVE
   EXERCISE
   UNDER
   DEVELOPMENT
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Types of volcanoes




      Cinder (or Scoria) Cone - A cone-shaped volcano whose steep sides are formed by loose, fragmented cinders that fall
      to the Earth close to the vent. The lava flows through a single vent that is usually only up to about 1,000 feet tall. There is
      usually a bowl-shaped crater at the top. As the gas-filled lava erupts into the air, the lava fragments into pieces and forms
      cinders.




                                   Mt Eden, Auckland
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Rangitoto, Auckland


       Shield Volcano - A gently-sloping volcano that emits mostly basaltic lava (very fluid lava) that flows in long-lasting,
       relatively gentle eruptions - explosions are minimal. Shield volcanoes can be very big. Examples are Mt. Kilauea
       (in Hawaii, USA) and Rangitoto

       Shield volcanoes are hot spot volcanoes

       Less than 54 % silica, dark lava




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Mt Taranaki

         Composite or Strato Volcano - A steep-coned volcano that explosively emits gases, ash, pumice, and a small
         amount of stiff, silica lava (rhyolite).

         Starts of steep coned but slope lessens and becomes quite gentle – large ring plain

         This type of volcano can have eruptions accompanied by lahars -- deadly mudflows.

         Most volcanoes on Earth are of this type. Stratovolcanoes kill more people than any other type of volcanoes - this is
         because of their abundance on Earth and their powerful mudflows. Examples are Krakatoa in Indonesia, Mt.
         Pinatubo in the Philippines, and Mt. St. Helens in, USA.




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Mt Manganui


      Lava Dome - A bulbous (rounded) volcano that forms when very viscous lava barely flows. An example is
      Mont Pelée in Martinique

      Dome building is interspersed with explosive episodes with pyroclastic flows (see later notes)




      Light coloured, high silica lava




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Rhyolite Caldera Complex - these are the most explosive volcanoes. They do not look like common
             volcanoes -- after an eruption, the result is a caldera (crater) caused when the area around the vent
             collapses. Examples are Yellowstone, USA and Lake Taupo in New Zealand (which erupted around A.D.
             80).




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Caldera formation

    Calderas are huge craters that form when rock collapses following a huge volcanic eruption (called ignimbritic or Plinian
    eruption)




        The huge underground magma chamber is quickly emptied throwing ash maybe 50 km in the air. When Taupo erupted
        1800 years ago, much of the life in the entire North Island was wiped out by falling ash.

        The heavier ash quickly falls to earth forming a ground hugging, gas-rich lava which hugs the ground. This pyroclastic
        flow travels very fast – destroying everything in its path.




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Make a mock volcano that erupts when you mix baking soda and vinegar. This is a very messy project - especially at the end when the volcano erupts. Wear old clothes
      and work on a pile of newspapers (or even better, outdoors).



      In a real volcano, molten rock from deep within the Earth erupts through a volcano (the molten rock is called magma when it is within the Earth and is called lava when it
      comes out of a volcano). In this project, a mock volcano will erupt with a bubbly, fizzy liquid that is created by a simple chemical reaction. An acid (vinegar) and a base
      (baking soda) interact. Chemically, the acid and base neutralize each other, producing carbon dioxide gas as a by-product. The exact reaction is
      Supplies:

                             Old aluminum pie tin (or baking pan or paper plate)
                             Lots of old newspaper
                             Baking soda (about 3-4 tablespoons)
                             Vinegar (about 1/2 cup)
                             A few drops of liquid dishwashing detergent
                             Small plastic bottle (like a small pop bottle)
                             Modeling clay
                             Funnel
                             Measuring spoon and measuring cup
                             Red food coloring

      Using the funnel (make sure it's dry), put 3 to 4 tablespoons of baking soda into the bottle. The add a few drops of liquid dishwashing
      detergent and about a half cup of water. Optional: add a little bit of glitter (about half a teaspoon).




      Put the clean, empty bottle on the aluminium pie plate (or baking pan or paper plate).
      Using the modelling clay, make a volcano around the bottle. Leave the area around the top of the bottle open and don't get any clay inside the bottle.

      Make your volcano in the shape of a dome or strato volcano




      Put a few drops of red food colouring into about one-half of a cup of vinegar.




      The Eruption: Using the funnel, pour the vinegar mixture into the bottle (then quickly remove the funnel).
      Your volcano will erupt immediately! When the vinegar reacts with the baking soda, carbon dioxide gas is formed and the
      bubbles push the "lava" out the "volcano."

      Be prepared for a mess!




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
VOLCANO - in
          cross-section

Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Magma Reservoir, Ash Cloud, Sill, Vent,
                                            Ash, Throat, Summit, Base, Flank, Lava,
                               Word List:   Crater, Conduit, Dike, Ash, Parasitic cone
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
WORD LIST
                               Magma reservoir
                               Ash cloud
                               Sill
                               Vent
                               Throat
                               Summit
                               Base
                               Flank
                               Lava
                               Crater
                               Conduit
                               Dike
                               Ash
                               Parasitic cone




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
ANSWERS TO THE CUT & PASTE VOLCANO




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Slideshow: Volcanoes Presentation   VOLCANO TYPES               Conc. H2SO4 + Sugar




       WHILE YOU WATCH THE SLIDE SHOW, LISTEN CAREFULLY and
       Match the volcano type with its description and the drawing of
       its shape


1.     1.     SHIELD            2.    COMPOSITE    3.    RHYOLITE            4.    CALDERA
                                      CONE OR            DOME
                                      (ANDESITE)

       (i) 	

 Steep 	

slopes (ii) 	

 Shallow    (iii) 	

forms a          (iv) 	

cone
                               	

      slopes     	

      lake             	

     shaped


       (a)                      (b)                (c)                       (d)




2. Which volcano would be the most explosive? ___________________

3. Explain the shape of the shield volcano? __________________________________
   __________________________________________________________________
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Choose from the word list (right)
to complete the sentences
(below)

                                                                     Continental
   Oceanic plate                                                     plate
   (Heavier)                                                         (Lighter)

                                                                     Subduction zone



4. When an ___________ plate collides with a continental plate       WORD LIST
   the ___________ plate goes under the ____________ plate.
                                                                     rocks
   This happens because the _______________ is ___________.          extinct
5. As it goes under, the higher temperature of the mantle melts it   volcano
   and the magma rises up through cracks as ________. This is        lava
   how a _________ is formed.                                        oceanic
                                                                     steam
6. Five things that pour out of a volcano during an eruption are     active
   ___________ , ___________ , ____________ , ___________            dust
   and ______________ .                                              continental
                                                                     dormant
7. An _________ volcano is one that is erupting.                     heavier
8. A sleeping volcano is called a ______________ volcano. It has     crust
   not erupted for many years but may erupt at any time.             ash

9. A dead volcano is called an _____________ volcano .
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
The Taupo volcanic zone includes volcanoes in the
                                           central North Island, Rotorua and the Bay of
                 Reading about volcanoes   Plenty. These volcanoes lie along the edge of the
                                           Pacific and Indo-Australian plates. Because the
                                           oceanic crust of the Pacific plate is sliding under
                                           the Indo-Australian plate, volcanic activity is seen
                                           on the continental crust of the Indo-Australian
                                           plate parallel to the plate boundary.
                                           There are different volcano types in the Taupo
                                           volcanic zone. This is because the different volcano
                                           types are created from magma from different
                                           depths along the subduction zone. The thickness of
                                           magma (how easily it flows) depends on its depth
                                           and temperature.
                                           Basalt volcanoes are formed from the eruption of
                                           thin, runny magma which comes from deep
                                           along the subduction zone where the temperature
                                           is high. This magma also has a low silica
                                           content.




                           Taupo
                           Volcanic
                           Zone




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Silica thickens the magma and since the silica content is low the magma that forms basalt volcanoes is thin
and runny. The magma that escapes from the crust to form a Basalt volcano is basic (the opposite to being
acidic) and the eruptions that form the slopes of the volcano are mild.

At the other extreme, if the magma comes from a shallow region of the subduction zone, where the
temperature is much lower, Rhyolite volcanoes are formed. This magma which is at a lower temperature
also has a high silica content and is therefore thicker and reluctant to flow easily. The magma is acidic.
This results in steep sided volcanoes like Mount Tauhara and Mount Maunganui. These mountains were formed
by violent eruptions. Lake Taupo was originally a rhyolite dome volcano. Pressure under the mountain rapidly
dropped after a violent explosion which caused the crust to collapse. This formed a caldera. The explosion was
so violent that the ash turned the sky red over Rome and China. The crater that remained filled with water to
form a large lake.

Andesite volcanoes are formed from magma which has a thickness, silica content and acidity which is
somewhere between the basic magma of basalt volcanoes and the acidic magma of rhyolite volcanoes.

Wednesday, 22 September 2010
VOLCANO TYPES

                 Once you have completed the reading, complete the summary
                 table below:

                                           2.COMPOSITE
                                                          3.RHYOLITE
                               1.SHIELD      CONE OR                   4.CALDERA
                                                             DOME
                                            (ANDESITE)

 Sketch
 (showing the
 shape)
 Eruption type


 Thickness of
 the magma

 Silica content


 A NZ example

Wednesday, 22 September 2010
A SUMMARY




              Lava is ___________and                       Lava is ___________and
              slow-cooling so it                           cools ________so it is
              spreads out more before                      not able to spread out as
              it solidifies                                far before it solidifies




                                          Pressure drops in
                                          the mantle so the
                                          lithosphere collapses


                               Lava is ___________and cools __________ so it is
                               not able to spread out as far before it solidifies
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Lava type               Properties             Volcano type
                 Basalt        Runny lava - can flow long    Shield volcanoes
                                 way from source in thin
                               layers. Dark and rich in Fe
                                        and Mg.




                Andesite           Stiff, slow moving             Cone

                 Dacite          Thick lava that oozes            Dome

                Rhyolite        Generally light in colour,       Caldera
                                thick lava that tends to
                                        explode




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
WEATHERING


Wednesday, 22 September 2010
INTERACTIVE
   EXERCISE

Wednesday, 22 September 2010
What
              has caused these
                   changes?


                                 WAVE ACTION




                                               STREAM ACTION




                                 WAVE ACTION


Wednesday, 22 September 2010
What
              has caused these
                   changes?




                           EARTH


                                   MARS



BOTH CAUSED BY WIND



Wednesday, 22 September 2010
What
              has caused these
                   changes?




 ICE AND ROCKS,
 FALLING UNDER THE
 INFLUENCE OF GRAVITY




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
What
              has caused these
                   changes?




         ALTERNATING HEATING
         AND COOLING

Wednesday, 22 September 2010
What
              has caused these
                   changes?




       PLANT ROOTS
       GROWING INTO THE
       ROCK




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
What
              has caused these
                   changes?




   ACID RAIN




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
What
                has caused these
                     changes?




   CHEMICAL WEATHERING
   (CALLED OXIDATION)




When marble contains sulphide minerals and undergoes oxidation, the Iron II will produce rust spots, and the sulfur is converted to
sulphuric acid, which can dissolve calcium. During oxidation Iron II is converted to Iron III.
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Frost Wedging (or Freeze - Thaw)

                                                There often needs to be a repetitive cycle of
                                                freezing and thawing (melting)




                                             Glaciers
                                             Weathering takes place in glaciers but not by
                                             the action of frost because the water is not
                                             freezing and thawing so regularly. Instead
                                             _____________________________________

                                             _____________________________________
                                             _____________________________________



This is the Fox Glacier in New Zealand. The sheet of ice is constantly moving down the mountain side,
breaking off rock as it goes and carrying those pieces down the valley.
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
WEATHERING SUMMARY
Weathering is the process by which rocks are broken down.
Weathering can be Mechanical or chemical.
Mechanical weathering
• Water can dissolve soluble rock
• Water can wear away insoluble rock. The action of waves, streams or rainfall can
  weaken the rock, breaking away little bits.
• Wind blows pieces of sand over rocks, wearing away softer rock
• Ice and rocks falling under the influence of gravity can wear away the sides of
  mountains forming valleys.
• Alternating heating and cooling can break down rocks over time because the rock
  contains different materials that expand differently. This forces the materials apart
  and causes the rock to be broken down into smaller pieces.
• Frost action can break up rocks because when water freezes in cracks it expands,
  forcing the rock to split.
• Plant roots can grow in rocks and as they do so they can break the rock up into
  smaller pieces.
Chemical Weathering
• Acid rain reacts with the calcium in rocks causing them to break down.
• Oxidation occurs when the iron sulphide minerals in marble react with oxygen to
   form rust.
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
EROSION AND ITS AGENTS


Erosion is the transportation of rock, soil, and mineral particles. It is this
transportation that causes material to be worn away. Erosion and weathering often
occur together
                     Sources of erosion:
                     Gravity
                     Water (running water, glaciers, and rain)
                     Wind
                     Waves

                                        EXAMPLES

           ________________                               ________________




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
INTERACTIVE
   EXERCISE

Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Type of weathering (Mechanical/Chemical/Biological)
A
B
C
D
E
                       1.Copy this table into
F                        the back of your
G
H
                         book.
I                      2.Complete it as you
J
K
                         view the slides
L                        which follow
M
N
O
P
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
A




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
B




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
C




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
D




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
E




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
F




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
G




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
H




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
I




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
J




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
K




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
L




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
M




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
N




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
O




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
P




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Type of weathering - Answers
A           Mechanical (wind)

B            Mechanical (water)

C            Mechanical (Freeze - thaw)

D            Chemical weathering (acid rain)

E            Mechanical (Alternate heating & cooling)

F            Mechanical (Gravity causing Glaciers to scour out valley)

G            Chemical (acid rain)

H            Mechanical (Gravity causing Glaciers to scour out valley)

I            Biological weathering

J            Mechanical (Alternate heating & cooling)

K            Mechanical (Wave action)

L            Chemical weathering

M            Biological weathering

N            Chemical weathering (acid rain)

O            Biological weathering

P            Biological weathering
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Study the pictures (below) and for each picture state the source/s of erosion
responsible for the observed changes. Explain how the changes occurred

                       Farmland
                       _______________________________________________________
                       _______________________________________________________
                       _______________________________________________________
                       _______________________________________________________
                       _______________________________________________________
                       _______________________________________________________
                       _______________________________________________________

                       Desert rocks
                       _______________________________________________________
                       _______________________________________________________
                       _______________________________________________________
                       _______________________________________________________

                       Mountain slopes
                       _______________________________________________________
                       _______________________________________________________
                       _______________________________________________________
                       _______________________________________________________
  Stream               _______________________________________________________
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
EARTHQUAKES


Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Earthquakes in Action:
   Read the two pages “Earthquakes in Action” (Y10 Pathfinder) and
   Answer the questions on the two pages that follow.




       22 September - Y10 Science - Instructions
   • Make a heading in the front of your book: “EARTHQUAKES”
   • Read p98 and 99 in Millenium Science 2
   • Under the subheading, S and P waves, describe longitudinal and
       transverse waves
   • Read the handout, “How we learnt about the Earth’s layers” and
       write down two things about the Earth’s structure that these
       waves have helped scientists to learn about.
   • Answer the questions at the bottom of p99 by making a sub-
       heading of each question and writing a few sentences under each
       sub-heading.

Wednesday, 22 September 2010
EARTHQUAKES - causes
An earthquake is a vibration of the earth caused by a rapid release of energy.
Earthquakes are commonly caused by subduction where there is friction
(between the oceanic and the continental plate) which is suddenly released.
New Zealand has many earthquakes because it is situated over subduction zones.
These are often called faults but aren’t. A fault is where the plates crash into
each other without either plate sliding under the other. Faults can also cause
earthquakes.

1. Either read p112 & 113 (Pathfinder 10) or research earthquakes on the internet.
2. Complete the following definitions
Epicentre       ___________________________________________________________
Focus           ___________________________________________________________
Seismograph           ________________________________________________________
s waves               ________________________________________________________
p waves               ________________________________________________________
Richter scale _________________________________________________________
• The Taupo-Rotorua “fault” causes the Bay of Plenty Earthquakes.
• There are 2 types of earthquake waves: P and S.
• A seismometer can pick up these waves. This produces a seismogram:
P waves arrive first, S waves arrive later. The time difference tells us how far away
the quake is            Mini assignment - “Reading the traces” from Wignall and Wales (Y10 Homework Book)
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
LOCATING THE EPICENTRE OF A QUAKE


The epicenter of an earthquake is the area on the surface directly above the focus of
an earthquake. By locating the epicenter seismologist can determine where in the
earth's surface the earthquake waves originate from. This will help predicting and
preparing for future quakes and hazards. To locate the earthquake's epicenter you
need a seismogram from three separate seismic stations. Study the seismographs and
find the elapsed time between the arrival of the first P-wave and the first S-wave. By
determining the S-P time, and using a time-distance graph you can find the distance to
the epicenter from the seismic station. Now on a map draw a circle around the
epicenter, in which the radius of the circle equals the distance to the epicenter. Draw
circles around the other two seismic stations. the point at which the three circles meet
is the epicenter.




                                     Scanned image




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
THE ALPINE FAULT - forming the Southern Alps




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
THE ALPINE FAULT
Over the past 25 million years, the land either side of the alpine fault moved
vertically creating the Southern alps (which are about 4 km high)
The amount of uplift that has occurred is much greater than 4km (some estimates
put it at 20 km)
The height has been kept down due to weathering and erosion
                                  In the South Island two continental crusts,
                                  the Indo-Australian and the Pacific plate crash
                                  into each other. Of course, where the plates
                                  meet, rocks crash (very slowly) together with
                                  tremendous power. Folding (bending) and
                                  faulting (fracturing, breaking) of rocks occur.
                                  Faulting and folding lead to mountain
                                  building .

                                 The southern alps
                                 Mountain building occurs




                               Continental                   Continental



                                                    Mantle



Wednesday, 22 September 2010
PUTTING EARTHQUAKES ON THE MAP           Cut & Paste

Most earthquakes in New Zealand occur along
the main ranges living from Fiordland in the
southeast to East Cape in the northwest. This
axis follows the boundary between the Indo-
Australian and Pacific plates. Large
earthquakes are less common along the
central Alpine Fault, where the plates are not
subducting and the forces are accommodated
in different ways.
The largest city within this high risk zone is the
nation's capital, Wellington, followed by
Napier and Hastings. All these cities have
                                                                         h
experienced severe earthquakes since                               trenc
                                                              angi
European settlement.
                                                        H ikur

After reading the above
paragraphs, put the locations
(in bold print, on the map)




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
MEASURING EARTHQUAKES
There are two accepted ways of communicating the severity of an earthquake. They
both involve the use of scales. The Mercalli scale is based on the damage that
quake causes whilst the Richter scale is based on a seismograph reading and
reflects the energy of the quake.
               Mercalli                                    Richter

       1  Only detected by seismographs                    2
       3  Vibrations like the passing of a
          light truck, hanging objects swing
       5 Felt by most people, sleepers woken,              5
          windows broken, some plaster falls of walls
       7 Difficult to stand, walls crack, general alarm,
       9 Most buildings damaged, ground cracks
          appear, underground pipes break
       10 Many buildings fall down, large landslides,      7
          ground cracks badly, railway tracks bent
       11 Most buildings and bridges destroyed, wide
          cracks in ground, floods and landslides.
       12 Total destruction, waves seen on ground,          8
           cracks open and close
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
MAPS OF NEW ZEALAND




                               Alpine Fault




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Summary of New Zealand’s geology




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
EARTHQUAKES
SHAKY GROUND                           Research Assignment              Date due__________________
                               (This assignment addresses SLO’s 15, 16 and 17)

New Zealand is a country which experiences many earthquakes. In this assignment you will find out
about earthquakes in general and New Zealand earthquakes.

In your report you must: -
         •	

 Explain what causes an earthquake (find out about faults and plate boundaries and include
              these terms in your explanation)
         •	

 Describe how earthquakes are measured. What scale is commonly used and include a
              picture of the equipment used to measure a quake.
         •	

 Find out about the Christchurch earthquake that occurred this year. Describe the
              damage and include images. Explain how an earthquake can affect essential services such
              as power and water etc. Explain what caused the earthquake to occur in terms of New
              Zealand’s location between two plates. Describe the Alpine fault and explain how the
              mountain uplift occurred. Was the Christchurch quake caused by p or s waves?
              Where was the epicentre and focus?
Present your report as an A3 sized poster.
Your written work must be in your own words (no cut and paste from internet sites).
Make sure pictures or diagrams have either labels or a caption that links to your written work.
Include a bibliography on the back of poster. This will include:-
   •	

 the title and author(s) of any books you use in alphabetical order
   •	

 the web address of any world wide web sites used                     “A useful website”
      http://mtaspiring.school.nz/Tephra/ThewhereandwhenofNZearthquakes.html
      “The where and when of New Zealand Earthquakes”
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
TUESDAY’S
                 LESSON

Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
THE ALPINE FAULT - forming the Southern Alps




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
The Taupo volcanic zone includes volcanoes in the
                                           central North Island, Rotorua and the Bay of
                 Reading about volcanoes   Plenty. These volcanoes lie along the edge of the
                                           Pacific and Indo-Australian plates. Because the
                                           oceanic crust of the Pacific plate is sliding under
                                           the Indo-Australian plate, volcanic activity is seen
                                           on the continental crust of the Indo-Australian
                                           plate parallel to the plate boundary.
                                           There are different volcano types in the Taupo
                                           volcanic zone. This is because the different volcano
                                           types are created from magma from different
                                           depths along the subduction zone. The thickness of
                                           magma (how easily it flows) depends on its depth
                                           and temperature.
                                           Basalt volcanoes are formed from the eruption of
                                           thin, runny magma which comes from deep
                                           along the subduction zone where the temperature
                                           is high. This magma also has a low silica
                                           content.




                           Taupo
                           Volcanic
                           Zone




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Silica thickens the magma and since the silica content is low the magma that forms basalt volcanoes is thin
and runny. The magma that escapes from the crust to form a Basalt volcano is basic (the opposite to being
acidic) and the eruptions that form the slopes of the volcano are mild.

At the other extreme, if the magma comes from a shallow region of the subduction zone, where the
temperature is much lower, Rhyolite volcanoes are formed. This magma which is at a lower temperature
also has a high silica content and is therefore thicker and reluctant to flow easily. The magma is acidic.
This results in steep sided volcanoes like Mount Tauhara and Mount Maunganui. These mountains were formed
by violent eruptions. Lake Taupo was originally a rhyolite dome volcano. Pressure under the mountain rapidly
dropped after a violent explosion which caused the crust to collapse. This formed a caldera. The explosion was
so violent that the ash turned the sky red over Rome and China. The crater that remained filled with water to
form a large lake.

Andesite volcanoes are formed from magma which has a thickness, silica content and acidity which is
somewhere between the basic magma of basalt volcanoes and the acidic magma of rhyolite volcanoes.

Wednesday, 22 September 2010
MEASURING EARTHQUAKES
There are two accepted ways of communicating the severity of an earthquake. They
both involve the use of scales. The Mercalli scale is based on the damage that
quake causes whilst the Richter scale is based on a seismograph reading and
reflects the energy of the quake.
               Mercalli                                    Richter

       1  Only detected by seismographs                    2
       3  Vibrations like the passing of a
          light truck, hanging objects swing
       5 Felt by most people, sleepers woken,              5
          windows broken, some plaster falls of walls
       7 Difficult to stand, walls crack, general alarm,
       9 Most buildings damaged, ground cracks
          appear, underground pipes break
       10 Many buildings fall down, large landslides,      7
          ground cracks badly, railway tracks bent
       11 Most buildings and bridges destroyed, wide
          cracks in ground, floods and landslides.
       12 Total destruction, waves seen on ground,          8
           cracks open and close
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
PUTTING EARTHQUAKES ON THE MAP           Cut & Paste

Most earthquakes in New Zealand occur along
the main ranges living from Fiordland in the
southeast to East Cape in the northwest. This
axis follows the boundary between the Indo-
Australian and Pacific plates. Large
earthquakes are less common along the
central Alpine Fault, where the plates are not
subducting and the forces are accommodated
in different ways.
The largest city within this high risk zone is the
nation's capital, Wellington, followed by
Napier and Hastings. All these cities have
                                                                         h
experienced severe earthquakes since                               trenc
                                                              angi
European settlement.
                                                        H ikur

After reading the above
paragraphs, put the locations
(in bold print, on the map)




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
MAPS OF NEW ZEALAND




                               Alpine Fault




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
EARTHQUAKES
SHAKY GROUND                           Research Assignment              Date due__________________
                               (This assignment addresses SLO’s 15, 16 and 17)

New Zealand is a country which experiences many earthquakes. In this assignment you will find out
about earthquakes in general and New Zealand earthquakes.

In your report you must: -
         •	

 Explain what causes an earthquake (find out about faults and plate boundaries and include
              these terms in your explanation)
         •	

 Describe how earthquakes are measured. What scale is commonly used and include a
              picture of the equipment used to measure a quake.
         •	

 Find out about the Christchurch earthquake that occurred this year. Describe the
              damage and include images. Explain how an earthquake can affect essential services such
              as power and water etc. Explain what caused the earthquake to occur in terms of New
              Zealand’s location between two plates. Describe the Alpine fault and explain how the
              mountain uplift occurred. Was the Christchurch quake caused by p or s waves?
              Where was the epicentre and focus?
Present your report as an A3 sized poster.
Your written work must be in your own words (no cut and paste from internet sites).
Make sure pictures or diagrams have either labels or a caption that links to your written work.
Include a bibliography on the back of poster. This will include:-
   •	

 the title and author(s) of any books you use in alphabetical order
   •	

 the web address of any world wide web sites used                     “A useful website”
      http://mtaspiring.school.nz/Tephra/ThewhereandwhenofNZearthquakes.html
      “The where and when of New Zealand Earthquakes”
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
ROCKS
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
ROCK TYPES AND THE ROCK CYCLE
         http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/geology/rocks_intro.html

When a volcano erupts, the magma reaches the surface as lava. Lava cools to form
rocks called igneous rocks. Igneous rocks contain crystals which are the result of the
cooling process. When lava cools quickly, the crystals are small (as they are in
basalt). Osidian is an exception. It cools rapidly but without crystal growth. Air can
also be trapped in the lava as it cools rapidly (to form rocks like pumice or scoria).
Slow cooling results in larger crystals to produce rocks like granite.

Over time igneous rocks are eroded and the particles (sediments) collect in rivers and
oceans. This material is buried and compacted to form sedimentary rocks (such as
sandstone and mudstone). Sedimentary rocks can be recognised from the existence
of particles such as sand, mud and pebbles. Sedimentary rocks allow scientists to
learn about the environment that existed when the layers were formed. Fossils are
evidence of living things trapped in the sediments before they became rocks.
Scientists can also learn about climate change from these layers.

Sedimentary rock that finds itself in deeper, hotter regions of the crust can change
into metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic rocks are formed from sedimentary rocks that
have been subjected to heat and pressure. This occurs in places where tectonic plates
are coming together.

When metamorphic rocks melt they become part of the magma. This leaves volcanoes
as lava which cools to form igneous rocks and the cycle continues.
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Book work:
 -Read 4.13 (Reading about Science)
 -Copy all notes into books
 -Answer all the questions as full sentences.

 -Rock Crossword
 -Basic rock identification using the key from KIS book and a sample of rocks (rock
 kit?)
 -Quick ten - internet: "Interactives - Rock cycle"
 (http://www.learner.org/interactives/rockcycle/types3.html)




                                                                       129



Wednesday, 22 September 2010
ROCKS




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
ROCKS - answers




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
INTERACTIVE
   EXERCISE

Wednesday, 22 September 2010
ROCK TYPE (Igneous/Metamorphic/Sedimentary)
A
B
C
D
                       1.Copy this table into
E                        the back of your
F                        book.
G
                       2.Complete it as you
H
I
                         view the slides
J                        which follow
K
L
M
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
A




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
B




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
C




                               Schist
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
D



                     Granite


Wednesday, 22 September 2010
E




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
F




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
G




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
H




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
I



                               Obsidian


Wednesday, 22 September 2010
J




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
K




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
L




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
M




Wednesday, 22 September 2010
ROCK TYPE (Igneous/Metamorphic/Sedimentary)
A            Metamorphic

B            Igneous

C            Metamorphic

D            Igneous

E            Sedimentary

F            Sedimentary

G            Metamorphic

H            Metamorphic

I            Igneous

J            Sedimentary

K            Igneous

L            Metamorphic

M            Sedimentary

Wednesday, 22 September 2010
SORTING OUT THE ROCK CYCLE
                     Cut & paste the picture (below) into your book. Choose
                     from the labels (right) to complete the flow chart.
                                                                              • Melting


                                                                              • Deposition of
                                                                               sediment



                                                                              • Burial &
                                                                               compaction



                                                                              • Erosion &
                                                                               transport



                                                                              • Weathering of
                                                                               rocks at
                                                                               surface



                                                                              • Crystallisation
                                                                               of magma



                                                                              • Deformation &
                                                                               metamorphism
Wednesday, 22 September 2010
SORTING OUT THE ROCK CYCLE
                     Cut & paste the picture (below) into your book. Choose
                     from the labels (right) to complete the flow chart.
                                                                              • Melting


                                                                              • Deposition of
                                                                               sediment



                                                                              • Burial &
                                                                               compaction



                                                                              • Erosion &
                                                                               transport



                                                                              • Weathering of
                                                                               rocks at
                                                                               surface



                                                                              • Crystallisation
                                                                               of magma



                                                                              • Deformation &
                                                                               metamorphism
Wednesday, 22 September 2010

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Our World

  • 1. SHAKY GROUND 1. Label a cross-section of the earth which shows its four parts. 2. Describe the make-up of each layer. 3. Define the meaning of the terms crust, mantle, magma, inner core, outer core. 4. Recognise that the earth’s crust is broken up into pieces called tectonic plates. 5. Interpret a map of the world showing the tectonic plates and be able to name the two plates on which NZ lies. 6. Define the term continental drift and describe what causes this movement. 7. Describe the original super continent and it’s two parts. 8. Label a cross-section diagram of a volcano 4. Define weathering and describe how the major agents of physical (mechanical) and chemical weathering act. 5. Define erosion and describe how the major agents of erosion act. 6. Recognise the four types of volcanoes: shield, cone-shaped, dome and caldera. 7. Give the meaning of the terms: lava, vent, crater, ash, dormant, active, lahar. 13. Recognise the difference between continental and oceanic crust. 14. Explain how the process of subduction occurs, and how mid ocean ridges and trenches occur. 15. Explain what causes an earthquake. 16. Give the meaning of the terms: epicentre, focus, seismograph, s, and p waves, and Richter scale. 17. Recognise that most earthquake and volcanic activity is along plate boundaries. 18. Describe in simple terms, sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks. Briefly describe the rock cycle. Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 2. 2008 Specific Learning Outcome Suggested Learning Activities References 1. Label a cross-section of • View the Scotch egg cross-section as an introduction to the 4 layer structure of the the earth that shows its earth. four parts. • Research the earth’s structure using the internet Website: “Windows to 2. Describe the make up of • Students use the results of their research to complete the notes as a cloze exercise. the universe” each layer 3. Define the meanings of the terms crust, mantle, magma, inner core and outer core. 4. Define weathering and • Circus of weathering activities Slides 7 to 11 but these describe how the major • View the slides which show various examples of the agents of weathering. need further development agents of physical and • Complete the summary on weathering as a cloze exercise chemical weathering act 5. Define erosion and • Students read about the rock cycle and gain an appreciation of how it is instrumental to be developed describe how the major in the formation of the different types of rock agents of erosion act. • Students use the URL to research the rock cycle. • They work through questions on a worksheet and then • When back in class they use their results to complete a summary as a cloze exercise. • Complete illustrations that show erosion as weathering and transportation • View slides that show real life examples of erosion 6. Label a cross-sectional • View and discuss the OHT on volcano formation and copy it Hyperlink to an animation diagram of a volcano • View animation of subduction and volcano formation. (Slide 15) • Discuss the appearance of a subduction zone. • Cut and paste activity on the shield and composite cone volcano Cut and paste worksheet 7. Recognise the four types • Students answer quick questions on volcano types and subduction as a way of Slide 17 of volcanoes: shield, introducing them to the different types of volcanoes. cone-shaped, dome and • Read the handout and use it to fill in the summary table Slide 21 caldera. 8. Give the meaning of the • Read from the text and use it to write definitions for the terms on the slide Year 10 Pathfinder p52 terms: lava, vent, crater, ash, dormant, active, lahar. Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 3. 2008 Specific Learning Outcome Suggested Learning Activities References 9. Recognise that the • View the map as a projection which is part of a larger web page on the whiteboard Slide 23 earth’s crust is broken and study the plates. Students familiarise themselves with the terms lithosphere and up into pieces called athenosphere and reinforce their understanding of the relative fluidity of these layers tectonic plates. • Students cut and paste the continental plates to produce Gondwanaland. They check Cut and paste worksheet 10. Interpret a map of the their work against the OHT showing the broad timeline of continental drift. Note that world showing the the fact that the plates fit together to form one land mass is evidence that there may tectonic plates and be have been one land mass and that this has broken up into plates which have drifted able to name the two over time. plates that New • The mechanism of continental drift is reinforced by viewing convection currents to be developed Zealand lies on. (potassium permanganate crystals in water) 11. Define the term continental drift and describe what causes this movement. 12. Describe the original supercontinent and its two parts. 13. Recognise the • Reinforcement of the mechanism of subduction and discussion leading to the formation to be developed difference between of mid ocean trenches. This leads on to the idea that the continental plate is older than oceanic and continental the oceanic plate since the oceanic plate is continuously being melted and renewed. crusts • The mechanism of formation of mid ocean trenches is broken down in detail. 14. Explain how the process • Students research the composition of the two plates of subduction occurs and how mid ocean ridges and trenches occur 15. Explain what causes an • Students view subduction and appreciate that friction is the force that causes To be developed from earthquake vibrations to propagate through the earth to cause an earthquake available resources 16. Give the meaning of the • Carry out a reading exercise which leads to definitions of epicentre, focus etc terms epicentre, focus, • study the distribution of earthquakes (see OHT) inn New Zealand and relate this to seismograph, s and p subduction zone, noting that where there is no subduction (South Island) there are no waves and Richter scale earthquakes. 17. Recognise that most earthquake and volcanic activity is along plate boundaries. Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 4. Netbooks have been booked Did some work on layers and labelling. Took notes on composition of the layers. Earth's changing surface notes - plates floating. -> Convection current expt (tea leaves) Did some work on continental drift and plate tectonic theory. Illustrated subduction Quick questions (10) -plate movements (subduction only) -> volcanoes, mountains & earthquakes. -> watched the 1st part of the video on Mt St Helens -Quick questions -Clickview video --> Explain the diagram (slide) -Notes - mid-oceanic trenches and ridges tectonic plate jigsaw. Quick 5 Cut and Paste Volcano Bridgette, Carlene, Julie-Ana & Nathan to sit the test Handout achievement voucher to Declan Introduction: “VOLCANO TYPES” -> Show the “Volcanoes presentation” (hyper linked off the slide) making it interactive with lots of questions and explaining what type of volcanoes these are. Exercise: Students copy and complete the close exercise but do questions 1,2 and 3 interactively. Summary: Show this slide only. Ask questions to fill in spaces Crossword: “THE SHAKY GROUND CROSSWORD” Students complete exercise "MAKING A GLOSSARY 1 - ans's only in the back of their books - Reading exercise: "READING ABOUT VOLCANOES" -> Summary: "READING ABOUT VOLCANOES" Quick ten Video: "SUPER CONTINENT" & "Pangea" from Clickview - Reading exercise -> Cut and paste -> answer the questions Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 5. Bridgette, Carlene, Julie-Ana & Nathan to sit the test Quick ten -> Review the Super Continents questions Weathering slides -> Summary -Starter: "What has caused the weathering" (interactive identification exercise) - Copy as notes: Close ex - "CRUST MOVEMENT" - Handout: Crusts - "oceanic & continental" - Making a glossary 2 (use this with the pathfinder 10 books) --> answers only ----> complete the glossary that was started in your books -The big shaky ground crossword Read p112, 113 (Y10 Pathfinder) -> answer questions on p114, 115 Book work: -Read 4.13 (Reading about Science) - Rock types and the rock cycle -Copy all notes into books -Answer all the questions as full sentences. Start: Reinforcement exercise - Crossword puzzle - "ROCKS" Basic rock identification using the key from KIS book and a sample of rocks (rock kit?) Don't use the netbooks Revision questions (cloze ex. on handout) -> pasted into back of books. Rock interactive exercise (in slides) - not the internet. Rock cycle hand out in front of books Make a heading in the front of your book: “EARTHQUAKES” Read p98 and 99 in Millenium Science 2 Under the subheading, S and P waves, describe longitudinal and transverse waves Read the handout, “How we learnt about the Earth’s layers” and write down two things about the Earth’s structure that these waves have helped scientists to learn about. Answer the questions at the bottom of p99 by making a sub-heading of each question and writing a few sentences under each sub-heading. Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 7. Our Dynamic Earth Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 24. THE EARTH’S STRUCTURE Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 25. LAYERS - labelling & describing Demo: The Scotch egg model of the earth’s structure Imagine a Scotch egg...... 1. (breadcrumbs) 2. (sausagemeat) 3. (egg white) 4. (egg yolk) Research - The earth’s structure http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/Interior_Structure/ interior.html Diameter = ________ km. The inner core is so ___ that it causes material in the outer core and ___________to move around. _____________ ____________ thin silicate rock material ___________ mostly solid (semi-liquid/plastic) and _________ consisting of ________ _________ liquid and consisting of ________ & _________ solid and consisting of ________ & _________ Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 26. HOW THICK ARE YOU?? Study the diagram carefully. It shows the earth’s layers. The depth in kilometres of the boundaries between layers is shown. 1. Put the thickness of the layers in order from thickest to thinnest. 2. A calculator may help. Thickest layer ____________ ____________ ____________ Thinnest layer ____________ Note Mantle thickness = 2890 - 80 = 2820 km Some sources of information will ANSWERS Outer core thickness = 5150 - 2890 = 2260 km give the outer core as being thicker Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 27. LAYERS - defining them Research - Definitions http://mediatheek.thinkquest.nl/~ll125/en/struct.htm Use the URL above to match the definition with the term with the composition with the thickness and with the average temperature Thickness Average Term Definition Composition (km) temp (oC) A. The layer above 1. Iron and Nickel. Extremely hot but (a) 2200 (i) 4500 Inner the core but below the pressure is low enough to allow it core the crust to exist as a liquid. B. The earth’s hard 2. Compounds of silicon, iron and (b) 15 (ii) 20 outer shell (which magnesium Outer floats on the softer to core part of the mantle) 870 C. The liquid layer 3. Rocks: Basalt and Granite (c) 1250 (iii) 3700 that surrounds and Mantle spins around the inner layer D. The solid, 4. Iron and Nickel. Extremely hot but (d) 2900 (iv) 2600 innermost part of under too much pressure to exist as a Crust the earth liquid. Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 28. UN-MIXING THE TABLE Answers Inner core ____ ____ ____ ____ Outer core ____ ____ ____ ____ Mantle ____ ____ ____ ____ Crust ____ ____ ____ _____ Now write the correct definitions for Inner core, Outer core, Mantle and Crust in the space provided (below): Definitions The inner core is ______________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ The outer core is ______________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ The mantle is ________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ The crust is __________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 29. PLATE MOVEMENT Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 30. CONTINENTAL DRIFT The tectonic plates that make up the lithosphere float on the magma of the mantle. Hot magma near the outer core rises up towards the crust. When it gets there it cools enough to return to the core where it can be heated again and the cycle continues. This cycle results in circular currents called convection currents. Continental drift occurs when convection currents cause the tectonic plates to move. Practical MODELLING CONVECTION CURRENTS Method Tea 1. Set up the equipment as shown. xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx 2. As you gently heat the beaker (using a blue flame) record your Bunsen observation of how the tea burner leaves move in the space below. Mat Observation ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 31. TECTONIC PLATES A closer look at the crust: Lithosphere Stiffer part of the Athenosphere outer mantle and crust Liquid part of (floats on the the outer mantle athenosphere) The lithosphere is broken up into sections called tectonic plates. It is these plates that can float on the athenosphere Clickview video: Geography > “Global tectonics, Competing theories > Tectonic Plate Theory” Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 32. Oceanic Oceanic Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 33. CRUST MOVEMENT A ________________ boundary occurs where the lithospheric plates move away from each other Divergent boundaries form ____ - _________ ridges. The mid - Atlantic ridge is an example of a divergent plate boundary. A _________________ boundary occurs when the lithospheric plates move towards each other. Oceanic Oceanic If both plates are continental then the collision will result in ___________ formation. Oceanic Continental The Himalayan mountains are an example of a convergent boundary. When an oceanic plate moves towards a continental plate the heavier oceanic plate slides under the lighter continental plate. This is called a ____________ zone. A subduction zone is an area of intense activity. Continental _________, __________ eruptions and ___________ building all take place in a subduction zone. The Andes is a result of subduction Oceanic Words volcanic, mountain, divergent, convergent, mountain, subduction, mid, oceanic, earthquakes, Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 34. CRUSTS - continental and oceanic Oceanic crust Continental crust About 5 to 10 km thick about 30 to 70 km thick Consists mainly of heavy rocks like basalt Consists mainly of lighter rocks like granite Density: 3g per cubic centimetre Density: 2.8g per cubic centimetre Using the words “thinner, heavier, basalt and granite” describe the difference between the oceanic and continental crust. ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 35. RIDGES and TRENCHES - a closer look Trench Ridge Ridge Continental Plate Oceanic Plate Oceanic Plate SPREADING SUBDUCTION Magma rises --> cools and expands when it contacts the ocean --> pushing of the oceanic plates apart --> Ridge formation as the magma piles up on the edge of each plate Study the diagrams carefully and use them to write a few sentences which explain how mid-ocean ridges and trenches are formed: Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 36. Reading about: THE HISTORY OF PLATE TECTONICS Plate tectonic theory had its beginnings in 1915 when Alfred Wegener proposed his theory of "continental drift." Wegener proposed that the continents plowed through crust of ocean basins, which would explain why the outlines of many coastlines (like South America and Africa) look like they fit together like a puzzle. Wegener was not the first to notice this puzzle-like fit of the continents (Magellan and other early explorers also noticed this on their maps), but he was one of the first to realize that the Earth's surface has changed through time, and that continents that are separated now may have been joined together at one point in the past. Paleontologists had also found that there were fossils of similar species found on continents that are now separated by great geographic distance. Paleoclimate studies, which concerns examining the climate in Earth's past, revealed that glaciers covered large areas of the world which also are now separated by great geographic distances. These observations seemed to indicate that the Earth's lithosphere had been moving over geologic time. Wegener's ideas were very controversial because he didn't have an explanation for why the continents moved, just that there was observational evidence that they had. At the time, many geologists believed that the features of the Earth were the result of the Earth going through cycles of heating and cooling, which causes expansion and contraction of the land masses. People who believed this were called the anti-mobilists. The mobilists were in the opposite camp and supported Wegener's ideas, since many of them had seen evidence for continental motion, especially in the Alps. Although Wegener's "continental drift" theory was later disproved, it was one of the first times that the idea of crustal movement had been introduced to the scientific community; and it laid the groundwork for the development of modern plate tectonics. As years passed, more and more evidence was uncovered to support the idea that the plates move constantly over geologic time. http://scign.jpl.nasa.gov/learn/plate2.htm Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 37. Paleomagnetic studies, which examine the Earth's past magnetic field, showed that the magnetic north pole seemingly wandered all over the globe. This meant that either the plates were moving, or else the north pole was. Since the north pole is essentially fixed, except during periods of magnetic reversals, this piece of evidence strongly supports the idea of plate tectonics. Following World War II, even more evidence was uncovered which supports the theory of plate tectonics. In the 1960's a world-wide array of seismometers were installed to monitor nuclear testing, and these instruments revealed a startling geological phenomenon. It showed that earthquakes, volcanoes, and other active geologic features for the most part aligned along distinct belts around the world, and those belts defined the edges of tectonic plates. In addition, further paleomagnetic studies revealed a striped pattern of magnetic reversals in the crust of the ocean basins. Basalt contains a fair amount of magnetic minerals called magnetite. When the lava from spreading centers in the oceans forms and cools, these minerals align to the north pole. The Earth has undegone several magnetic reversals in the past, in which the north and south poles are reversed for a period of time. When geologists and geophysicists discovered that the crust in the ocean recorded these reversals, it was even more positive proof that the lithosphere had to be in motion, otherwise there would be no "stripes" of normal and reversed polarity crust. These were some of the final pieces of the puzzle that led to the development of modern plate tectonic theory. Since its emergence in the 1960's, plate tectonic theory has gained wide-spread acceptance as the model of Earth processes. Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 38. TECTONIC PLATES - mapped out The result of the cut & paste exercise New Zealand lies on two tectonic plates. Shade each plate carefully using a different colour Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 43. Clickview: Geography > Continental drift theory > Global tectonics: Competing theories PANGEA In 1915 the idea of moving continents was considered to be a scientific __________. Wegener proposed that 300 million years ago the earth was one giant ____________ (which was named Pangea) About 200 million years ago Pangea broke into two smaller continents, Gondwana and Laurasia. Over millions of years, Gondwana and Laurasia broke away into smaller continents gradually __________ to their present positions. Wegener’s theory was based on the close fit of the ________ and ______ ________ coastlines. There was also a similarity of _______, animals and _______ on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. There were also similarities in the structure of the ____________. The key criticism of Wegener’s theory was that it was not possible to explain how the continents could _________ _________. Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 44. THE ORIGINAL SUPER CONTINENT Reading about it: http://kids.earth.nasa.gov/archive/pangaea/Pangaea_game.html 180 Million Years Ago About 180 million years ago the supercontinent Pangea began to break up. Scientists believe that Pangea broke apart for the same reason that the plates are moving today. The movement is caused by the convection currents that roll over in the upper zone of the mantle. This movement in the mantle causes the plates to move slowly across the surface of the Earth. About 200 million years ago Pangaea broke into two new continents Laurasia and Gondwanaland. Laurasia was made of the present day continents of North America (Greenland), Europe, and Asia. Gondwanaland was made of the present day continents of Antarctica, Australia, South America. The subcontinent of India was also part of Gondwanaland. Notice that at this time India was not connected to Asia. The huge ocean of Panthalassa remained but the Atlantic Ocean was going to be born soon with the splitting of North America from the Eurasian Plate. How do we know that South America was attached to Africa and not to North America 180 million years ago? Scientists today can read the history of the rock record by studying the age and mineral content of the rocks in a certain area. The Triple Junction was formed because of a three-way split in the crust allowing massive lava flows. The split was caused by an upwelling of magma that broke the crust in three directions and poured out lava over hundreds of square miles of Africa and South America. The rocks of the triple junction, which today is the west central portion of Africa and the east central portion of South America, are identical matches for age and mineral make up. In other words the rocks in these areas of the two continents were produced at the same time and in the same place. This tells us that South America and Africa were connected at one time! Today these two continents are separated by the Atlantic Ocean which is over 2000 miles wide! Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 45. 135 Million Years Ago About 135 million years ago Laurasia was still moving, and as it moved it broke up into the continents of North America, Europe and Asia (Eurasian plate). Gondwanaland also continued to spread apart and it broke up into the continents of Africa, Antarctica, Australia, South America, and the subcontinent of India. Arabia started to separate from Africa as the Red Sea opened up. The red arrows indicate the direction of the continental movements. Notice how far the Indian subcontinent has to move to get to its present position connected to Asia. The Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and Pacific Oceans are all beginning to take shape as the continents move toward their present positions. The plates are still moving today making the Atlantic Ocean larger and the Pacific Ocean smaller. The yellow arrows on the world map indicate the direction of plates movements today. Notice the position of the Indian Subcontinent today. It moved hundreds of miles in 135 million years at a great speed (4 inches per year!!!) The Indian plate crashed into the Eurasian plate with such speed and force that it created the tallest mountain range on Earth, the Himalayas! What do you predict the world will look like in 100 million or 200 million years? What new mountain ranges will form? Where will new volcanoes erupt? The Atlantic Ocean will be much larger 50 million years from now and the Pacific Ocean will be much smaller. North and South America will have moved farther west (California moving north) while Greenland will be located farther west but also farther north. The western part of Africa will rotate clockwise and crash into Europe causing great mountain building, while the far eastern region of Africa will rotate eastward toward the Arabian peninsula. Australia will move farther north into the tropics, while New Zealand will move to the south of Australia. All of these predictions are just that, predictions. These movements of the continents may happen if the plates continue to move in the same direction and with the same speed as they are moving today. Scientists are not certain of the movement today, let alone 50 million years into the future. What do you think the world will look like in 50 million years??? Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 46. SUPER CONTINENTS 1. After reading “THE ORIGINAL SUPERCONTINENT”. cut and paste these pictures into your book in chronological order. 2. Label your pictures with how many years ago the situation existed 3. Answer the questions that follow. Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 47. Questions THE ORIGINAL SUPER CONTINENT 1. What is the name of the original super continent? 2. Why did this continent break up into smaller continents? 3. Describe the countries that are contained within Laurasia and Gondwanaland. 4. Explain how the triple junction was formed? 5. Describe the events that led to the formation of the triple junction. 6. What evidence do scientists have for the theory of continental drift illustrated by your pictures? Answers 1. Pangea 2. The movement was caused by convection currents that rolled over the upper zone of the mantle. 3. Laurasia consists of North America, Asia and Europe. Gondwanaland contains, South America, Africa, Arabia, Antartica, India and Australia. 4. The triple junction was caused by an upwelling of magma that caused a three way split in the crust. The crust split off in three different directions to form the continents South America, Africa/Arabia and Antarctica. The lava poured over large areas of Africa and America. 5. Scientists study the age and mineral content of rocks in the different continents and look for similarities (indicating that they could once have been part of the same land mass. Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 49. eChalk has some very good animations Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 50. INTERACTIVE EXERCISE UNDER DEVELOPMENT Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 51. Types of volcanoes Cinder (or Scoria) Cone - A cone-shaped volcano whose steep sides are formed by loose, fragmented cinders that fall to the Earth close to the vent. The lava flows through a single vent that is usually only up to about 1,000 feet tall. There is usually a bowl-shaped crater at the top. As the gas-filled lava erupts into the air, the lava fragments into pieces and forms cinders. Mt Eden, Auckland Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 52. Rangitoto, Auckland Shield Volcano - A gently-sloping volcano that emits mostly basaltic lava (very fluid lava) that flows in long-lasting, relatively gentle eruptions - explosions are minimal. Shield volcanoes can be very big. Examples are Mt. Kilauea (in Hawaii, USA) and Rangitoto Shield volcanoes are hot spot volcanoes Less than 54 % silica, dark lava Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 53. Mt Taranaki Composite or Strato Volcano - A steep-coned volcano that explosively emits gases, ash, pumice, and a small amount of stiff, silica lava (rhyolite). Starts of steep coned but slope lessens and becomes quite gentle – large ring plain This type of volcano can have eruptions accompanied by lahars -- deadly mudflows. Most volcanoes on Earth are of this type. Stratovolcanoes kill more people than any other type of volcanoes - this is because of their abundance on Earth and their powerful mudflows. Examples are Krakatoa in Indonesia, Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines, and Mt. St. Helens in, USA. Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 55. Mt Manganui Lava Dome - A bulbous (rounded) volcano that forms when very viscous lava barely flows. An example is Mont Pelée in Martinique Dome building is interspersed with explosive episodes with pyroclastic flows (see later notes) Light coloured, high silica lava Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 56. Rhyolite Caldera Complex - these are the most explosive volcanoes. They do not look like common volcanoes -- after an eruption, the result is a caldera (crater) caused when the area around the vent collapses. Examples are Yellowstone, USA and Lake Taupo in New Zealand (which erupted around A.D. 80). Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 57. Caldera formation Calderas are huge craters that form when rock collapses following a huge volcanic eruption (called ignimbritic or Plinian eruption) The huge underground magma chamber is quickly emptied throwing ash maybe 50 km in the air. When Taupo erupted 1800 years ago, much of the life in the entire North Island was wiped out by falling ash. The heavier ash quickly falls to earth forming a ground hugging, gas-rich lava which hugs the ground. This pyroclastic flow travels very fast – destroying everything in its path. Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 58. Make a mock volcano that erupts when you mix baking soda and vinegar. This is a very messy project - especially at the end when the volcano erupts. Wear old clothes and work on a pile of newspapers (or even better, outdoors). In a real volcano, molten rock from deep within the Earth erupts through a volcano (the molten rock is called magma when it is within the Earth and is called lava when it comes out of a volcano). In this project, a mock volcano will erupt with a bubbly, fizzy liquid that is created by a simple chemical reaction. An acid (vinegar) and a base (baking soda) interact. Chemically, the acid and base neutralize each other, producing carbon dioxide gas as a by-product. The exact reaction is Supplies: Old aluminum pie tin (or baking pan or paper plate) Lots of old newspaper Baking soda (about 3-4 tablespoons) Vinegar (about 1/2 cup) A few drops of liquid dishwashing detergent Small plastic bottle (like a small pop bottle) Modeling clay Funnel Measuring spoon and measuring cup Red food coloring Using the funnel (make sure it's dry), put 3 to 4 tablespoons of baking soda into the bottle. The add a few drops of liquid dishwashing detergent and about a half cup of water. Optional: add a little bit of glitter (about half a teaspoon). Put the clean, empty bottle on the aluminium pie plate (or baking pan or paper plate). Using the modelling clay, make a volcano around the bottle. Leave the area around the top of the bottle open and don't get any clay inside the bottle. Make your volcano in the shape of a dome or strato volcano Put a few drops of red food colouring into about one-half of a cup of vinegar. The Eruption: Using the funnel, pour the vinegar mixture into the bottle (then quickly remove the funnel). Your volcano will erupt immediately! When the vinegar reacts with the baking soda, carbon dioxide gas is formed and the bubbles push the "lava" out the "volcano." Be prepared for a mess! Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 59. VOLCANO - in cross-section Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 60. Magma Reservoir, Ash Cloud, Sill, Vent, Ash, Throat, Summit, Base, Flank, Lava, Word List: Crater, Conduit, Dike, Ash, Parasitic cone Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 61. WORD LIST Magma reservoir Ash cloud Sill Vent Throat Summit Base Flank Lava Crater Conduit Dike Ash Parasitic cone Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 62. ANSWERS TO THE CUT & PASTE VOLCANO Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 63. Slideshow: Volcanoes Presentation VOLCANO TYPES Conc. H2SO4 + Sugar WHILE YOU WATCH THE SLIDE SHOW, LISTEN CAREFULLY and Match the volcano type with its description and the drawing of its shape 1. 1. SHIELD 2. COMPOSITE 3. RHYOLITE 4. CALDERA CONE OR DOME (ANDESITE) (i) Steep slopes (ii) Shallow (iii) forms a (iv) cone slopes lake shaped (a) (b) (c) (d) 2. Which volcano would be the most explosive? ___________________ 3. Explain the shape of the shield volcano? __________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 64. Choose from the word list (right) to complete the sentences (below) Continental Oceanic plate plate (Heavier) (Lighter) Subduction zone 4. When an ___________ plate collides with a continental plate WORD LIST the ___________ plate goes under the ____________ plate. rocks This happens because the _______________ is ___________. extinct 5. As it goes under, the higher temperature of the mantle melts it volcano and the magma rises up through cracks as ________. This is lava how a _________ is formed. oceanic steam 6. Five things that pour out of a volcano during an eruption are active ___________ , ___________ , ____________ , ___________ dust and ______________ . continental dormant 7. An _________ volcano is one that is erupting. heavier 8. A sleeping volcano is called a ______________ volcano. It has crust not erupted for many years but may erupt at any time. ash 9. A dead volcano is called an _____________ volcano . Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 65. The Taupo volcanic zone includes volcanoes in the central North Island, Rotorua and the Bay of Reading about volcanoes Plenty. These volcanoes lie along the edge of the Pacific and Indo-Australian plates. Because the oceanic crust of the Pacific plate is sliding under the Indo-Australian plate, volcanic activity is seen on the continental crust of the Indo-Australian plate parallel to the plate boundary. There are different volcano types in the Taupo volcanic zone. This is because the different volcano types are created from magma from different depths along the subduction zone. The thickness of magma (how easily it flows) depends on its depth and temperature. Basalt volcanoes are formed from the eruption of thin, runny magma which comes from deep along the subduction zone where the temperature is high. This magma also has a low silica content. Taupo Volcanic Zone Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 66. Silica thickens the magma and since the silica content is low the magma that forms basalt volcanoes is thin and runny. The magma that escapes from the crust to form a Basalt volcano is basic (the opposite to being acidic) and the eruptions that form the slopes of the volcano are mild. At the other extreme, if the magma comes from a shallow region of the subduction zone, where the temperature is much lower, Rhyolite volcanoes are formed. This magma which is at a lower temperature also has a high silica content and is therefore thicker and reluctant to flow easily. The magma is acidic. This results in steep sided volcanoes like Mount Tauhara and Mount Maunganui. These mountains were formed by violent eruptions. Lake Taupo was originally a rhyolite dome volcano. Pressure under the mountain rapidly dropped after a violent explosion which caused the crust to collapse. This formed a caldera. The explosion was so violent that the ash turned the sky red over Rome and China. The crater that remained filled with water to form a large lake. Andesite volcanoes are formed from magma which has a thickness, silica content and acidity which is somewhere between the basic magma of basalt volcanoes and the acidic magma of rhyolite volcanoes. Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 67. VOLCANO TYPES Once you have completed the reading, complete the summary table below: 2.COMPOSITE 3.RHYOLITE 1.SHIELD CONE OR 4.CALDERA DOME (ANDESITE) Sketch (showing the shape) Eruption type Thickness of the magma Silica content A NZ example Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 68. A SUMMARY Lava is ___________and Lava is ___________and slow-cooling so it cools ________so it is spreads out more before not able to spread out as it solidifies far before it solidifies Pressure drops in the mantle so the lithosphere collapses Lava is ___________and cools __________ so it is not able to spread out as far before it solidifies Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 69. Lava type Properties Volcano type Basalt Runny lava - can flow long Shield volcanoes way from source in thin layers. Dark and rich in Fe and Mg. Andesite Stiff, slow moving Cone Dacite Thick lava that oozes Dome Rhyolite Generally light in colour, Caldera thick lava that tends to explode Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 71. INTERACTIVE EXERCISE Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 72. What has caused these changes? WAVE ACTION STREAM ACTION WAVE ACTION Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 73. What has caused these changes? EARTH MARS BOTH CAUSED BY WIND Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 74. What has caused these changes? ICE AND ROCKS, FALLING UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF GRAVITY Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 75. What has caused these changes? ALTERNATING HEATING AND COOLING Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 76. What has caused these changes? PLANT ROOTS GROWING INTO THE ROCK Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 77. What has caused these changes? ACID RAIN Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 78. What has caused these changes? CHEMICAL WEATHERING (CALLED OXIDATION) When marble contains sulphide minerals and undergoes oxidation, the Iron II will produce rust spots, and the sulfur is converted to sulphuric acid, which can dissolve calcium. During oxidation Iron II is converted to Iron III. Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 79. Frost Wedging (or Freeze - Thaw) There often needs to be a repetitive cycle of freezing and thawing (melting) Glaciers Weathering takes place in glaciers but not by the action of frost because the water is not freezing and thawing so regularly. Instead _____________________________________ _____________________________________ _____________________________________ This is the Fox Glacier in New Zealand. The sheet of ice is constantly moving down the mountain side, breaking off rock as it goes and carrying those pieces down the valley. Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 80. WEATHERING SUMMARY Weathering is the process by which rocks are broken down. Weathering can be Mechanical or chemical. Mechanical weathering • Water can dissolve soluble rock • Water can wear away insoluble rock. The action of waves, streams or rainfall can weaken the rock, breaking away little bits. • Wind blows pieces of sand over rocks, wearing away softer rock • Ice and rocks falling under the influence of gravity can wear away the sides of mountains forming valleys. • Alternating heating and cooling can break down rocks over time because the rock contains different materials that expand differently. This forces the materials apart and causes the rock to be broken down into smaller pieces. • Frost action can break up rocks because when water freezes in cracks it expands, forcing the rock to split. • Plant roots can grow in rocks and as they do so they can break the rock up into smaller pieces. Chemical Weathering • Acid rain reacts with the calcium in rocks causing them to break down. • Oxidation occurs when the iron sulphide minerals in marble react with oxygen to form rust. Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 81. EROSION AND ITS AGENTS Erosion is the transportation of rock, soil, and mineral particles. It is this transportation that causes material to be worn away. Erosion and weathering often occur together Sources of erosion: Gravity Water (running water, glaciers, and rain) Wind Waves EXAMPLES ________________ ________________ Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 82. INTERACTIVE EXERCISE Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 83. Type of weathering (Mechanical/Chemical/Biological) A B C D E 1.Copy this table into F the back of your G H book. I 2.Complete it as you J K view the slides L which follow M N O P Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 100. Type of weathering - Answers A Mechanical (wind) B Mechanical (water) C Mechanical (Freeze - thaw) D Chemical weathering (acid rain) E Mechanical (Alternate heating & cooling) F Mechanical (Gravity causing Glaciers to scour out valley) G Chemical (acid rain) H Mechanical (Gravity causing Glaciers to scour out valley) I Biological weathering J Mechanical (Alternate heating & cooling) K Mechanical (Wave action) L Chemical weathering M Biological weathering N Chemical weathering (acid rain) O Biological weathering P Biological weathering Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 101. Study the pictures (below) and for each picture state the source/s of erosion responsible for the observed changes. Explain how the changes occurred Farmland _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ Desert rocks _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ Mountain slopes _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ Stream _______________________________________________________ Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 103. Earthquakes in Action: Read the two pages “Earthquakes in Action” (Y10 Pathfinder) and Answer the questions on the two pages that follow. 22 September - Y10 Science - Instructions • Make a heading in the front of your book: “EARTHQUAKES” • Read p98 and 99 in Millenium Science 2 • Under the subheading, S and P waves, describe longitudinal and transverse waves • Read the handout, “How we learnt about the Earth’s layers” and write down two things about the Earth’s structure that these waves have helped scientists to learn about. • Answer the questions at the bottom of p99 by making a sub- heading of each question and writing a few sentences under each sub-heading. Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 104. EARTHQUAKES - causes An earthquake is a vibration of the earth caused by a rapid release of energy. Earthquakes are commonly caused by subduction where there is friction (between the oceanic and the continental plate) which is suddenly released. New Zealand has many earthquakes because it is situated over subduction zones. These are often called faults but aren’t. A fault is where the plates crash into each other without either plate sliding under the other. Faults can also cause earthquakes. 1. Either read p112 & 113 (Pathfinder 10) or research earthquakes on the internet. 2. Complete the following definitions Epicentre ___________________________________________________________ Focus ___________________________________________________________ Seismograph ________________________________________________________ s waves ________________________________________________________ p waves ________________________________________________________ Richter scale _________________________________________________________ • The Taupo-Rotorua “fault” causes the Bay of Plenty Earthquakes. • There are 2 types of earthquake waves: P and S. • A seismometer can pick up these waves. This produces a seismogram: P waves arrive first, S waves arrive later. The time difference tells us how far away the quake is Mini assignment - “Reading the traces” from Wignall and Wales (Y10 Homework Book) Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 105. LOCATING THE EPICENTRE OF A QUAKE The epicenter of an earthquake is the area on the surface directly above the focus of an earthquake. By locating the epicenter seismologist can determine where in the earth's surface the earthquake waves originate from. This will help predicting and preparing for future quakes and hazards. To locate the earthquake's epicenter you need a seismogram from three separate seismic stations. Study the seismographs and find the elapsed time between the arrival of the first P-wave and the first S-wave. By determining the S-P time, and using a time-distance graph you can find the distance to the epicenter from the seismic station. Now on a map draw a circle around the epicenter, in which the radius of the circle equals the distance to the epicenter. Draw circles around the other two seismic stations. the point at which the three circles meet is the epicenter. Scanned image Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 106. THE ALPINE FAULT - forming the Southern Alps Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 107. THE ALPINE FAULT Over the past 25 million years, the land either side of the alpine fault moved vertically creating the Southern alps (which are about 4 km high) The amount of uplift that has occurred is much greater than 4km (some estimates put it at 20 km) The height has been kept down due to weathering and erosion In the South Island two continental crusts, the Indo-Australian and the Pacific plate crash into each other. Of course, where the plates meet, rocks crash (very slowly) together with tremendous power. Folding (bending) and faulting (fracturing, breaking) of rocks occur. Faulting and folding lead to mountain building . The southern alps Mountain building occurs Continental Continental Mantle Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 108. PUTTING EARTHQUAKES ON THE MAP Cut & Paste Most earthquakes in New Zealand occur along the main ranges living from Fiordland in the southeast to East Cape in the northwest. This axis follows the boundary between the Indo- Australian and Pacific plates. Large earthquakes are less common along the central Alpine Fault, where the plates are not subducting and the forces are accommodated in different ways. The largest city within this high risk zone is the nation's capital, Wellington, followed by Napier and Hastings. All these cities have h experienced severe earthquakes since trenc angi European settlement. H ikur After reading the above paragraphs, put the locations (in bold print, on the map) Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 109. MEASURING EARTHQUAKES There are two accepted ways of communicating the severity of an earthquake. They both involve the use of scales. The Mercalli scale is based on the damage that quake causes whilst the Richter scale is based on a seismograph reading and reflects the energy of the quake. Mercalli Richter 1 Only detected by seismographs 2 3 Vibrations like the passing of a light truck, hanging objects swing 5 Felt by most people, sleepers woken, 5 windows broken, some plaster falls of walls 7 Difficult to stand, walls crack, general alarm, 9 Most buildings damaged, ground cracks appear, underground pipes break 10 Many buildings fall down, large landslides, 7 ground cracks badly, railway tracks bent 11 Most buildings and bridges destroyed, wide cracks in ground, floods and landslides. 12 Total destruction, waves seen on ground, 8 cracks open and close Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 110. MAPS OF NEW ZEALAND Alpine Fault Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 115. Summary of New Zealand’s geology Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 117. EARTHQUAKES SHAKY GROUND Research Assignment Date due__________________ (This assignment addresses SLO’s 15, 16 and 17) New Zealand is a country which experiences many earthquakes. In this assignment you will find out about earthquakes in general and New Zealand earthquakes. In your report you must: - • Explain what causes an earthquake (find out about faults and plate boundaries and include these terms in your explanation) • Describe how earthquakes are measured. What scale is commonly used and include a picture of the equipment used to measure a quake. • Find out about the Christchurch earthquake that occurred this year. Describe the damage and include images. Explain how an earthquake can affect essential services such as power and water etc. Explain what caused the earthquake to occur in terms of New Zealand’s location between two plates. Describe the Alpine fault and explain how the mountain uplift occurred. Was the Christchurch quake caused by p or s waves? Where was the epicentre and focus? Present your report as an A3 sized poster. Your written work must be in your own words (no cut and paste from internet sites). Make sure pictures or diagrams have either labels or a caption that links to your written work. Include a bibliography on the back of poster. This will include:- • the title and author(s) of any books you use in alphabetical order • the web address of any world wide web sites used “A useful website” http://mtaspiring.school.nz/Tephra/ThewhereandwhenofNZearthquakes.html “The where and when of New Zealand Earthquakes” Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 118. TUESDAY’S LESSON Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 120. THE ALPINE FAULT - forming the Southern Alps Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 121. The Taupo volcanic zone includes volcanoes in the central North Island, Rotorua and the Bay of Reading about volcanoes Plenty. These volcanoes lie along the edge of the Pacific and Indo-Australian plates. Because the oceanic crust of the Pacific plate is sliding under the Indo-Australian plate, volcanic activity is seen on the continental crust of the Indo-Australian plate parallel to the plate boundary. There are different volcano types in the Taupo volcanic zone. This is because the different volcano types are created from magma from different depths along the subduction zone. The thickness of magma (how easily it flows) depends on its depth and temperature. Basalt volcanoes are formed from the eruption of thin, runny magma which comes from deep along the subduction zone where the temperature is high. This magma also has a low silica content. Taupo Volcanic Zone Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 122. Silica thickens the magma and since the silica content is low the magma that forms basalt volcanoes is thin and runny. The magma that escapes from the crust to form a Basalt volcano is basic (the opposite to being acidic) and the eruptions that form the slopes of the volcano are mild. At the other extreme, if the magma comes from a shallow region of the subduction zone, where the temperature is much lower, Rhyolite volcanoes are formed. This magma which is at a lower temperature also has a high silica content and is therefore thicker and reluctant to flow easily. The magma is acidic. This results in steep sided volcanoes like Mount Tauhara and Mount Maunganui. These mountains were formed by violent eruptions. Lake Taupo was originally a rhyolite dome volcano. Pressure under the mountain rapidly dropped after a violent explosion which caused the crust to collapse. This formed a caldera. The explosion was so violent that the ash turned the sky red over Rome and China. The crater that remained filled with water to form a large lake. Andesite volcanoes are formed from magma which has a thickness, silica content and acidity which is somewhere between the basic magma of basalt volcanoes and the acidic magma of rhyolite volcanoes. Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 123. MEASURING EARTHQUAKES There are two accepted ways of communicating the severity of an earthquake. They both involve the use of scales. The Mercalli scale is based on the damage that quake causes whilst the Richter scale is based on a seismograph reading and reflects the energy of the quake. Mercalli Richter 1 Only detected by seismographs 2 3 Vibrations like the passing of a light truck, hanging objects swing 5 Felt by most people, sleepers woken, 5 windows broken, some plaster falls of walls 7 Difficult to stand, walls crack, general alarm, 9 Most buildings damaged, ground cracks appear, underground pipes break 10 Many buildings fall down, large landslides, 7 ground cracks badly, railway tracks bent 11 Most buildings and bridges destroyed, wide cracks in ground, floods and landslides. 12 Total destruction, waves seen on ground, 8 cracks open and close Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 124. PUTTING EARTHQUAKES ON THE MAP Cut & Paste Most earthquakes in New Zealand occur along the main ranges living from Fiordland in the southeast to East Cape in the northwest. This axis follows the boundary between the Indo- Australian and Pacific plates. Large earthquakes are less common along the central Alpine Fault, where the plates are not subducting and the forces are accommodated in different ways. The largest city within this high risk zone is the nation's capital, Wellington, followed by Napier and Hastings. All these cities have h experienced severe earthquakes since trenc angi European settlement. H ikur After reading the above paragraphs, put the locations (in bold print, on the map) Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 125. MAPS OF NEW ZEALAND Alpine Fault Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 126. EARTHQUAKES SHAKY GROUND Research Assignment Date due__________________ (This assignment addresses SLO’s 15, 16 and 17) New Zealand is a country which experiences many earthquakes. In this assignment you will find out about earthquakes in general and New Zealand earthquakes. In your report you must: - • Explain what causes an earthquake (find out about faults and plate boundaries and include these terms in your explanation) • Describe how earthquakes are measured. What scale is commonly used and include a picture of the equipment used to measure a quake. • Find out about the Christchurch earthquake that occurred this year. Describe the damage and include images. Explain how an earthquake can affect essential services such as power and water etc. Explain what caused the earthquake to occur in terms of New Zealand’s location between two plates. Describe the Alpine fault and explain how the mountain uplift occurred. Was the Christchurch quake caused by p or s waves? Where was the epicentre and focus? Present your report as an A3 sized poster. Your written work must be in your own words (no cut and paste from internet sites). Make sure pictures or diagrams have either labels or a caption that links to your written work. Include a bibliography on the back of poster. This will include:- • the title and author(s) of any books you use in alphabetical order • the web address of any world wide web sites used “A useful website” http://mtaspiring.school.nz/Tephra/ThewhereandwhenofNZearthquakes.html “The where and when of New Zealand Earthquakes” Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 128. ROCK TYPES AND THE ROCK CYCLE http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/geology/rocks_intro.html When a volcano erupts, the magma reaches the surface as lava. Lava cools to form rocks called igneous rocks. Igneous rocks contain crystals which are the result of the cooling process. When lava cools quickly, the crystals are small (as they are in basalt). Osidian is an exception. It cools rapidly but without crystal growth. Air can also be trapped in the lava as it cools rapidly (to form rocks like pumice or scoria). Slow cooling results in larger crystals to produce rocks like granite. Over time igneous rocks are eroded and the particles (sediments) collect in rivers and oceans. This material is buried and compacted to form sedimentary rocks (such as sandstone and mudstone). Sedimentary rocks can be recognised from the existence of particles such as sand, mud and pebbles. Sedimentary rocks allow scientists to learn about the environment that existed when the layers were formed. Fossils are evidence of living things trapped in the sediments before they became rocks. Scientists can also learn about climate change from these layers. Sedimentary rock that finds itself in deeper, hotter regions of the crust can change into metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic rocks are formed from sedimentary rocks that have been subjected to heat and pressure. This occurs in places where tectonic plates are coming together. When metamorphic rocks melt they become part of the magma. This leaves volcanoes as lava which cools to form igneous rocks and the cycle continues. Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 129. Book work: -Read 4.13 (Reading about Science) -Copy all notes into books -Answer all the questions as full sentences. -Rock Crossword -Basic rock identification using the key from KIS book and a sample of rocks (rock kit?) -Quick ten - internet: "Interactives - Rock cycle" (http://www.learner.org/interactives/rockcycle/types3.html) 129 Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 132. ROCKS - answers Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 133. INTERACTIVE EXERCISE Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 134. ROCK TYPE (Igneous/Metamorphic/Sedimentary) A B C D 1.Copy this table into E the back of your F book. G 2.Complete it as you H I view the slides J which follow K L M Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 137. C Schist Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 138. D Granite Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 143. I Obsidian Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 148. ROCK TYPE (Igneous/Metamorphic/Sedimentary) A Metamorphic B Igneous C Metamorphic D Igneous E Sedimentary F Sedimentary G Metamorphic H Metamorphic I Igneous J Sedimentary K Igneous L Metamorphic M Sedimentary Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 149. SORTING OUT THE ROCK CYCLE Cut & paste the picture (below) into your book. Choose from the labels (right) to complete the flow chart. • Melting • Deposition of sediment • Burial & compaction • Erosion & transport • Weathering of rocks at surface • Crystallisation of magma • Deformation & metamorphism Wednesday, 22 September 2010
  • 150. SORTING OUT THE ROCK CYCLE Cut & paste the picture (below) into your book. Choose from the labels (right) to complete the flow chart. • Melting • Deposition of sediment • Burial & compaction • Erosion & transport • Weathering of rocks at surface • Crystallisation of magma • Deformation & metamorphism Wednesday, 22 September 2010