2. Overview
• Down’s Syndrome
• Leukaemia
• The link between Down’s Syndrome and Leukaemia
• Epidemiology
• Aetiology
• Future research
• Implications for other leukaemias
• Treatment
3. Down’s Syndrome
Originally described in 1866
Associated with Trisomy 21 in 1959
Prevalence 1/1000 births
95% due to chromosomal non-disjunction; 5% due to translocations
Risk factors:
increased maternal age
1/1000 maternal age 30 years
9/1000 maternal age 40 years
?infertility treatment
5. Leukaemia
cancer
WBC proliferation in the bone
marrow
Classification:
acute/chronic
type of WBC
Current leukaemia model:
2 co-operating mutations
1 leading to impaired
differentiation
1 leading to increased
proliferation/cell survival
Picture: Hitzler & Zipursky, 2005
6. Leukaemia
Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL)
derived from B lymphocyte or T lymphocyte precursors
80% childhood leukaemia
Acute myeloid leukaemia (AML)
e.g. myeloid, monocytic, megakaryocytic, erythroid
20% childhood leukaemia
Acute megakaryoblastic leukaemia (AMKL)
AML subtype: leukaemic cells have platelet precursor phenotype
6% childhood AML cases
7. Leukaemia in Down’s Syndrome
10-20 fold increased risk of leukaemia
ALL
80% childhood leukaemia; 60% Down’s Syndrome leukaemia
20 times higher incidence children with Down’s Syndrome compared to
children without Down’s Syndrome
AML
20% childhood leukaemia; 40% Down’s Syndrome leukaemia
AMKL
6% childhood AML; 62% Down’s Syndrome AML
500 times higher incidence children with Down’s Syndrome compared to
children without Down’s Syndrome
8. Leukaemia in Down’s Syndrome
AML in Down’s Syndrome
AMKL in most cases
younger median age of onset
2 in Down’s Syndrome
8 in non-Down’s Syndrome
myelodysplastic syndrome more common prior to leukaemia
Transient Leukaemia
9. Transient Leukaemia
Also termed: ‘Transient Abnormal Myelopoiesis’ and ‘Transient Myeloproliferative
Disorder’
10% newborn infants with Down’s Syndrome
peripheral blood contains clonal population of megakaryoblasts
cannot be distinguished from AMKL blasts by routine methods
usually clinically silent
usually disappear within 3 months
majority of cases totally resolve
However
can be fatal
20% develop MDS and AMKL by the age of 4 years
10. Transient Leukaemia
Leukaemic cells in Transient Leukaemia and AMKL can:
show variable megakaryocytic differentiation
show features of multiple haematopoietic lineages
Evidence that Transient Leukaemia is a precursor for AMKL
near identical morphology, immunophenotype, ultrastructure
clone-specific GATA1 mutations
GATA1: X chromosome, ‘zinc-finger’ transcription factor, essential for
differentiation of megakaryocytic, erythroid and basophillic lineages
therefore have common cell of origin
Leukaemic cells in Transient Leukaemia and AMKL in Down’s Syndrome can form
megakaryocytic, erythroid or basophillic lineages
11. GATA1
all Transient Leukaemia and AMKL cases have GATA1 mutations
most abrogate splicing of exon 2 or produce stop codon prior to alternative
start codon at position 84
lack N-terminal domain
mutations disappear upon remission
disease specific mutations
leukemogenisis model: transcription factor mutation blocks differentiation
GATA1 mutation determines haematopoietic lineage
GATA1 mutations present in Transient Leukaemia at birth
mutations in utero
proportion of Down’s Syndrome fetuses acquire GATA1 mutation
large clone = Transient Leukaemia
small clone = no clinical signs
12. Aetiology
Three distinct steps:
1) fetal heamatopoietic cell with trisomy 21
rare Transient Leukaemia cases in people without Down’s syndrome
acquired trisomy 21 only in haematopoietic cells
1) mutation of GATA1
expression of shortened
GATA1 (GATA1s)
1) extra, as of yet unknown event
not all cases of Transient
Leukaemia progress to AMKL
Picture: Hitzler & Zipursky, 2005
14. Future Research
Loss of GATA1 function in people without Down’s Syndrome results in:
accumulation of abnormally differentiated megakaryocytes
thrombocytopenia
NO LEUKAEMIC TRANSFORMATION
discovered by Shivdasani et al, 1997
What is the effect of Trisomy 21?
What ‘advantage’ does GATA1 mutation provide to people with
Down’s Syndrome?
What is the ‘second-hit’?
15. Implications for other leukaemias
current acute leukaemia model:
2 co-operating mutations
1 leading to impaired differentiation
1 leading to increased proliferation/cell survival
This means that that the sequence of Transient Leukaemia to
AMKL as seen in Down’s Syndrome is a chance to investigate this
model of leukaemia and discover the timing and nature of the 2
necessary events.
16. Treatment of Leukaemia in Down’s Syndrome
AML (AMKL)
increased sensitivity to cytarabine
80% 5 year survival
failure usually due to toxicity (mucositis and infection)
ALL
similar treatment as in AML
60-70% cure rate (75-85% in population without Down’s Syndrome)
no increased sensitivity, but increased toxicity
dose reduction would increase risk of relapse
supportive care
17. References
Ahmed, M., Sternberg, A., Hall, G., Thomas, A., Smith, O., O’Marcaigh, A., Wynn, R., Stevens, R., Addison, M.,
King, D., Stewart, B., Gibson, B., Roberts, I., Vyas, P. (2004). Natural History of GATA1 mutations in Down
syndrome, Blood, 103(7):2480-2489.
Hitzler, J.K., Cheung, J., Li, Y., Scherer, S.W., Zipursky, A. (2003). GATA1 mutations in transient leukaemia and
acute megakaryoblastic leukaemia of Down syndrome, Blood, 101(11):4301-4304.
Hitzler, J.K., Zipursky, A. (2005). Origins of leukaemia in children with down syndrome, Cancer, 5:11-20.
Puumala, S.E., Ross, J.A., Olshan, A.F., Robison, L.L., Smith, F.O., Spector, L.G. (2007). Reproductive history,
infertility treatment, and the risk of acute leukaemia in children with down syndrome, Cancer, [Epub ahead of
print].
Shivdasani, R.A., Fujiwara, Y., McDevitt, M.A., Orkin, S.H. (1997). A loneage-selective knockout establishes the
critical role of transcription factor GATA-1 in megakaryocyte growth and platelet development, Embo J., 16:3965-
3973.
Slordahl, S.H. et al. (1993). Leukaemic blasts with markers of four cell lineages in Down's syndrome
(‘megakaryoblastic leukaemia’), Med. Pediatr. Oncol., 21:254-258.
Vyas, P., Crispino, J.D. (2007). Molecular insights into Down syndrome-associated leukemia, Current Opinion in
Pediatrics, 19:9-14.
Webb, D., Roberts, I., Vyas, P. (2007). Haematology of Down syndrome, Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed.,
[published online 5 Sep 2007].
http://www.intellectualdisability.info/home.htm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/nol/shared/spl/hi/pop_ups/05/health_shifting_perspectives/img/1.jpg
Editor's Notes
Originally described by John Langdon Down
Associated with Trisomy 21 by Professor Jerome Lejeune
Overall incidence is 1/1000, so 600 babies with Down’s syndrome are born in the UK each year
It is estimated that there are 60,000 people living with Down’s syndrome in the UK
80% of children with Down’s Syndrome are born to mothers under 35 years of age
Research suggests that infertility treatment increases risk of chromosomal abnormalities
Facial appearance: flat profile, flat nasal bridge, small nose, eyes that slant upwards and outwards often with an epicanthic fold a fold of skin that runs vertically between the lids at the inner corner of the eye), small mouth.
Body appearance: reduced muscle tone, big space between first and second toe, broad hands with short fingers and a little finger that curves inwards, often a single palmar crease.
Sensory abnormalities: visual and hearing
Congenital Heart Disease is present in 50% of people with Down’s Syndrome
There are two methods of classifying leukaemias: acute/chronic or according to the type of WBC that is proliferating abnormally
ALL describes leukaemia where the cancerous cell is derived from precursors of B or less commonly T lymphocytes. ALL makes up 80% of all childhood leukaemias.
AML describes leukaemia where the cancerous cell is not B or T cell derived and the subtype is determined by the phenotype of the leukaemic cells. AML makes up 20% of childhood leukaemias.
AMKL is a subtype of AML where the leukaemic cell looks like platelet precursors. AMKL makes up 6% of childhood AML cases.
ALL makes up 80% of childhood leukaemia, but 60% of leukaemia in children with DS. Children with DS have a 20 fold increased risk of developing ALL when compared to children without DS.
AML makes up 20% of childhood leukaemia, but 40% of leukaemia in children with DS.
AMKL makes up 6% of childhood AML, but in children with Down’s Syndrome makes up 62% of AML cases. Children with DS have a 500 fold increased risk of developing AMKL when compared to children without DS.
The rest of this talk is going to focus on AMKL in DS. The majority of AML cases in DS are AMKL and have a younger age of onset than in the population without DS. AMKL in DS much more commonly begins as a MDS. This is a process of abnormal megakaryocytic differentiation. Furthermore, children with DS are at risk of Transient Leukaemia – a condition that is almost exclusive to children with DS.
Tranisent leukaemia is only found in infants with DS and is found in about 10% of newborns with DS. These children are born with a clonal population of megakaryoblasts in their blood. These megakaryoblasts cannot be distinguished from the blasts of AMKL by routine methods and usually spontaneously disappear within the first 3 months of life.
TL begins in utero and usually does not cause any symptoms. The majority of cases resolve and the children do not have any lasting haematological problems. There is no evidence as to how TL spontaneously resolves. However, it can also be fatal due liver damage or complications in the lungs or heart and 20% of children with TL proceed to develop MDS and AMKL by the age of 4 years.
mutations of GATA1 are present in the cells of TL and AMKL in Down’s Syndrome and these cells can become megakaryocytes, erythroid cells or basophils! The megakaryoctic lineage is particularly dependant on the level of expression of GATA1.
MULTIPLE HAEMATOPOIETIC LINEAGES: for example precursor cells of erythrocytes and basophils. Ferritin is found in the cytoplasm of DS-AMKL cells.
This slide equates the aeitology to the ‘model of leukaemia’ I mentioned earlier, with points 2 and 3 being the 2 mutations.
2) It is currently not known if it is the absence of normal GATA1 or the presence of GATA1s that causes ‘leukaemic’ proliferation of megakaryocytes. It could be both, because GATA1s fails to suppress some ‘pro-proliferative’ genes such as GATA2 and MYC) – although these are ‘pro-proliferative’ for erythrocytes.
The previous slide shows us how a child with DS can progress to developing AMKL. Of course we know that not all children with DS or indeed all children with DS and Transient Leukaemia proceed to develop AMKL. This slide shows us all the possible routes children with DS can take.
Normal
GATA1s – small clone or large clone
clonal extinction – normal
clonal expansion plus additional genetic event – AMKL
AMKL – death or remission (normal)
Although our understanding of leukaemia in DS have progressed a long way over recent years, there still remain unknowns in the aetiology.
Loss of GATA1 function has different effect on people without DS and people with DS – therefore what is the effect of Trisomy 21?
why are GATA1 mutations so relatively common in children with DS? It has been postulated that there may be some selective advantage, but it is only a hypothesis.
thirdly, what is the ‘second-hit’? We know that there must be a second genetic event, with GATA1 mutation being the first, but we do not know what this is yet.
NB: GATA1 mutation is the first mutation for DS-AMKL.
AML – failure of treatment usually due to toxicity due to mucositis and infection. Resistant disease and relapse are rare.
ALL – there is no increased sensitivity to treatment, but there is increased risk of toxicity. Cannot reduce the dose because of the high risk of relapse and so the emphasis is now on improving supportive care.